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Module 6: Musculoskeletal Injuries

Segment 9: Inpatient Complications

References labeled PEDS contain a pediatric element or primary focus.

Topic: The patient with substance abuse disorder

  • Arda Y, Panossian VS, Nzenwa IC, et al. Cognitive bias and diagnostic overshadowing in trauma: The case of substance use disorder in patients with traumatic brain injury. Surgery. 2026;194:110184. doi: 10.1016/j.surg.2026.110184 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41926847/.
  • Briggs B, Smith L, Yates N, et al. Fewer admissions, shorter stays: Phenobarbital use for alcohol withdrawal in the emergency department. Acad Emerg Med. 2025;doi: 10.1111/acem.70170 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41147831/.
  • Burry L, Hutton B, Williamson DR, et al. Pharmacological interventions for the treatment of delirium in critically ill adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2019;9:Cd011749. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD011749.pub2 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31479532/.
  • Canales FJ, Davis J, Girgla N, et al. Alcohol withdrawal syndrome in women vs men: Analysis of 1496 cases at a single site. Am J Crit Care. 2022;31(3):212-219. doi: 10.4037/ajcc2022616 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35466349/.
  • de Lemos J, Sharaf M, Moadebi S, et al. Replacing the Clinical Institute Withdrawal Assessment–Alcohol Revised with the modified Richmond Agitation and Sedation Scale for alcohol withdrawal to support management of alcohol withdrawal symptoms: Potential impact on length of stay and complications. CJEM. 2024;26(6):431-435. doi: 10.1007/s43678-024-00710-7 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38796808/.
  • Fleenor LM, Beavers JR, Tidwell WP, et al. Comparison of phenobarbital monotherapy to a benzodiazepine-based regimen for management of alcohol withdrawal syndrome in trauma patients. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2024;96(3):493-498. doi: 10.1097/ta.0000000000004116 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37599414/.
  • Furlong K, Lang E. The management of alcohol use disorder in the emergency department, is it time for version 2.0? CJEM. 2023;25(2):108-109. doi: 10.1007/s43678-023-00466-6 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36750530/.
  • Haber PS. Identification and treatment of alcohol use disorder. N Engl J Med. 2025;392(3):258-266. doi: 10.1056/NEJMra2306511 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39813644/.
  • Jenkins MJA, Kinsella SM, Wiles MD, et al. Peri-operative identification and management of patients with unhealthy alcohol intake. Anaesthesia. 2025;doi: 10.1111/anae.16530 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39780754/.
  • Kranzler HR. Overview of alcohol use disorder. Am J Psychiatry. 2023;180(8):565-572. doi: 10.1176/appi.ajp.20230488 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37525595/.
  • Littlefield AJ, Heavner MS, Eng CC, et al. Correlation between mMINDS and CIWA-Ar scoring tools in patients with alcohol withdrawal syndrome. Am J Crit Care. 2018;27(4):280-286. doi: 10.4037/ajcc2018547 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29961663/.
  • McCullough MA, Miller PRI, Martin T, et al. Eliminating the benzos: A benzodiazepine-sparing approach to preventing and treating alcohol withdrawal syndrome. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2024;96(3):394-399. doi: 10.1097/ta.0000000000004188 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37934662/.
  • Meloy P, Rutz D, Bhambri A. Alcohol withdrawal. J Educ Teach Emerg Med. 2025;10(1):O1-o30. doi: 10.21980/j87s8q https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39926251/.
  • Mezzadri L. Screening for alcohol use disorder and management of alcohol withdrawal syndrome in critical care patients. Crit Care Nurse. 2024;44(1):46-54. doi: 10.4037/ccn2024423 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38295866/.
  • Mo Y, Thomas MC, Laskey CS, et al. Current practice patterns in the management of alcohol withdrawal syndrome. P T. 2018;43(3):158-162. doi:  https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29491698/.
  • National Academies of Sciences Engineering Medicine. Review of evidence on alcohol and health. The National Academies Press; 2025. 252. https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/28582/review-of-evidence-on-alcohol-and-health.
  • Peta D. Substance use disorders and addiction in the emergency care setting. J Emerg Nurs. 2024;50(3):469-472. doi: 10.1016/j.jen.2023.10.008 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38705707/.
  • Putney K, Whittaker A, Newland V, et al. Alcohol withdrawal syndrome management in the intensive care unit. AACN Adv Crit Care. 2026;37(2):153-159. doi: 10.4037/aacnacc2026212 https://doi.org/10.4037/aacnacc2026212.
  • Salottolo K, McGuire E, Mains CW, et al. Occurrence, predictors, and prognosis of alcohol withdrawal syndrome and delirium tremens following traumatic injury. Crit Care Med. 2017;45(5):867-874. doi: 10.1097/ccm.0000000000002371 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28266937/.
  • Sertaridou EN, Fountoulaki M, Jha A, et al. Dexmedetomidine’s role in adult ICU after 20 years of experience: A narrative review. Healthcare (Basel). 2025;13(22) doi: 10.3390/healthcare13222882 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41302270/.
  • Seshadri A, Appelbaum R, Carmichael SP, 2nd, et al. Prevention of alcohol withdrawal syndrome in the surgical ICU: an American Association for the Surgery of Trauma Critical Care Committee Clinical Consensus Document. Trauma Surg Acute Care Open. 2022;7(1):e001010. doi: 10.1136/tsaco-2022-001010 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36425749/.
  • Tidwell WP, Thomas TL, Pouliot JD, et al. Treatment of alcohol withdrawal syndrome: Phenobarbital vs CIWA-Ar protocol. Am J Crit Care. 2018;27(6):454-460. doi: 10.4037/ajcc2018745 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30385536/.
  • Toogood P. Follow-up and complications rates in orthopedic trauma patients with substance use disorders. Injury. 2025;56(11) doi: 10.1016/j.injury.2025.112730 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40902314/.
  • Trojand T, Morgan J, Shamoun CJ. Using the Modified Minnesota Detoxification Scale to evaluate alcohol withdrawal syndrome: An integrative review. Crit Care Nurse. 2025;45(2):60-68. doi: 10.4037/ccn2025568 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40168010/.
  • Ungur AL, Neumann T, Borchers F, et al. Perioperative management of alcohol withdrawal syndrome. Visc Med. 2020;36(3):160-166. doi: 10.1159/000507595 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32775345/.

Topic: Fat embolism syndrome

  • Berlot G, Bussani R, Shafiei V, et al. Fulminant cerebral fat embolism: Case description and review of the literature. Case Rep Crit Care. 2018;2018:7813175. doi: 10.1155/2018/7813175 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30105101/.
  • Fukumoto LE, Fukumoto KD. Fat embolism syndrome. Nurs Clin North Am. 2018;53(3):335-347. doi: 10.1016/j.cnur.2018.04.003 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30100000/.
  • Kwon J, Coimbra R. Fat embolism syndrome after trauma: What you need to know. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2024;97(4):505-513. doi: 10.1097/ta.0000000000004434 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39213184/.
  • Miyake T, Okada H, Kanda N. Advances and uncertainties in fat embolism syndrome: a review. Trauma Surg Acute Care Open. 2026;11(2):e001913. doi: 10.1136/tsaco-2025-001913 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42375760/.
  • Morales-Vidal SG. Neurologic complications of fat embolism syndrome. Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep. 2019;19(3):14. doi: 10.1007/s11910-019-0928-9 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30788612/.
  • Shacklock E, Gemmell A, Hollister N. Neurological effects of fat embolism syndrome: A case report. J Intensive Care Soc. 2017;18(4):339-341. doi: 10.1177/1751143717718664 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29123567/.
  • Tyagi A, Aggarwal R, Soni KD, et al. Prone positioning for management of fat embolism syndrome in a patient with spine fracture: An unusual scenario and review of the literature. Bull Emerg Trauma. 2019;7(2):192-195. doi: 10.29252/beat-070217 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31198811/.

Topic: Traumatic stress disorder

  • Bell TM, Vetor AN, Zarzaur BL. Prevalence and treatment of depression and posttraumatic stress disorder among trauma patients with non-neurological injuries. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2018;85(5):999-1006. doi: 10.1097/ta.0000000000001992 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29851909/.
  • Brier ZMF, Ruggiero KJ, deRoon-Cassini TA, et al. Bedside mental health risk screening of traumatic injury patients is enhanced by measurement of injury mechanism and social support. Injury. 2025;56(5):112078. doi: 10.1016/j.injury.2024.112078 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39709254/.
  • Bull C, Urban K, Rohm L, et al. A brief intervention for injury-related traumatic stress: Results from a feasibility study. J Trauma Nurs. 2025;32(1):3-14. doi: 10.1097/jtn.0000000000000827 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39879265/.
  • Columbia University Irving Medical Center. Algorithm predicts risk for PTSD after traumatic injury. Nat Med. medicalxpress.com; 2020. 6 July 2020. doi:10.1038/s41591-020-0951-z https://www.nature.com/articles/s41591-020-0951-z
  • Dai W, Liu A, Kaminga AC, et al. Prevalence of acute stress disorder among road traffic accident survivors: a meta-analysis. BMC Psychiatry. 2018;18(1):188. doi: 10.1186/s12888-018-1769-9 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29895273/.
  • Flores EM, Michetti CP, Fakhry SM, et al. Trauma Survivors Network: history and evolution of a program empowering survivors and families impacted by traumatic injury. Trauma Surg Acute Care Open. 2025;10(1):e001576. doi: 10.1136/tsaco-2024-001576 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39845988/.
  • Folkerth RD. PTSD—seeking the ghost in the machine. N Engl J Med. 2022;386(23):2233-2234. doi: 10.1056/NEJMe2204710 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35675181/.
  • Grant E, Bowman A, Johnson L. Effectiveness of interventions for psychological distress following traumatic injury: A systematic review. Injury. 2025;56(2) doi: 10.1016/j.injury.2024.112090 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39753048/.
  • Hunt JC, Chesney SA, Brasel K, et al. Six-month follow-up of the injured trauma survivor screen: Clinical implications and future directions. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2018;85(2):263-270. doi: 10.1097/ta.0000000000001944 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29672441/.
  • Iles-Shih M, Kelly G, McManamen M, et al. Can screening and referral for posttraumatic stress improve mental health and substance abuse service delivery at trauma centers? Results from a randomized trial. Injury. 2026;57(1):112845. doi: 10.1016/j.injury.2025.112845 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41173731/.
  • Jensen S, Abrahamsen I, Baumgarten M, et al. Screening tools for predicting PTSD in acutely injured adult trauma patients: A systematic review. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2022;doi: 10.1097/ta.0000000000003524 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34991124/.
  • Kartiko S, Atahar J, Rattan R, et al. Posttraumatic stress disorder mitigation in trauma patients: An evidence-based systematic review from the Eastern Association for the Surgery of Trauma. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2025;doi: 10.1097/ta.0000000000004639 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40358601/.
  • Leroy A, Cottencin O, Labreuche J, et al. Four questions nurses can ask to predict PTSD 1 year after a motor vehicle crash. J Trauma Nurs. 2022;29(2):70-79. doi: 10.1097/jtn.0000000000000638 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35275108/.
  • listed Na. VA/DoD clinical practice guideline for the management of posttraumatic stress disorder and acute stress disorder: Clinician summary. Focus (Am Psychiatr Publ). 2018;16(4):430-448. doi: 10.1176/appi.focus.16408 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32021581/.
  • O’Donnell ML, Creamer MC, Parslow R, et al. A predictive screening index for posttraumatic stress disorder and depression following traumatic injury. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2008;76(6):923-32. doi: 10.1037/a0012918 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19045961/.
  • Olive P, Hives L, Ashton A, et al. Psychological and psychosocial aspects of major trauma care: A survey of current practice across UK and Ireland. Trauma. 2023;26(2):124-133. doi: 10.1177/14604086221145529 https://doi.org/10.1177/14604086221145529.
  • Perera J, Patterson S, Barker N, et al. Predicting anxiety, depression, PTSD and psychotic disorders after traumatic brain injury in civilian adults: A systematic review of multivariable prognostic models. Injury. 2026;57(2):112959. doi: 10.1016/j.injury.2025.112959 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41494479/.
  • Petersen-Pugmire K, Jimenez B, Carter R, et al. Feasibility of risk factor–based screening for posttraumatic stress disorder in trauma. J Trauma Nurs. 2023;30(1):27-33. doi: 10.1097/jtn.0000000000000696 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36633342/.
  • Petrucci CM, Villaseñor S, Brown WG, et al. Traumatic stress and depression risk screening at an ACS-verified trauma center. J Trauma Nurs. 2022;29(3):142-151. doi: 10.1097/jtn.0000000000000640 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35536343/.
  • Qi G, Li X, Yuan P, et al. Influencing factors and early predictive model of acute stress disorder in traumatic patients: a clinical comparative cohort study. Injury. 2024;doi: 10.1016/j.injury.2024.111578 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38669891/.
  • Qi M, Chen W, Qi G, et al. The predictive effect of ASD on PTSD and the factors influencing ASD and PTSD. Injury. 2025;56(2) doi: 10.1016/j.injury.2024.112033 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39602847/.
  • Quinn N, McCombie A, Jemberie D, et al. Under-diagnosis and under-treatment of post traumatic stress disorder amongst major trauma patients. Injury. 2026:113077. doi: 10.1016/j.injury.2026.113077 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41651683/.
  • Qureshi A, Dickenson E, Wall P. Psychological treatments for post-traumatic stress disorder, anxiety and depression following major physical civilian trauma: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Trauma. 2021;23(4):276-287. doi: 10.1177/14604086211026104 https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/14604086211026104.
  • Sabahi Z, Hasani P, Salehi-Pourmehr H, et al. What are the predictors of post-traumatic stress disorder among road traffic accident survivors: A systematic review. J Nerv Ment Dis. 2024;212(2):104-116. doi: 10.1097/nmd.0000000000001739 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38290103/.
  • Schnurr PP, Hamblen JL, Wolf J, et al. The management of posttraumatic stress disorder and acute stress disorder: Synopsis of the 2023 U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs and U.S. Department of Defense Clinical Practice Guideline. Ann Intern Med. 2024;doi: 10.7326/m23-2757 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38408360/.
  • Schultebraucks K, Shalev AY, Michopoulos V, et al. A validated predictive algorithm of post-traumatic stress course following emergency department admission after a traumatic stressor. Nat Med. 2020;26(7):1084-1088. doi: 10.1038/s41591-020-0951-z https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32632194/.
  • Stein MB, Jain S, Giacino JT, et al. Risk of posttraumatic stress disorder and major depression in civilian patients after mild traumatic brain injury: A TRACK-TBI study. JAMA Psychiatry. 2019;76(3):249-258. doi: 10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2018.4288 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30698636/.
  • Teager A, Dawson B, Johnson L, et al. A survey-based review of psychology provision in major trauma centres (MTCs) in England. Trauma. 2022;25(3):206-213. doi: 10.1177/14604086211063084 https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/14604086211063084.
  • Teixeira C, Rosa RG. Unmasking the hidden aftermath: postintensive care unit sequelae, discharge preparedness, and long-term follow-up. Crit Care Sci. 2024;36:-. doi: 10.62675/2965-2774.20240265-en https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38896724/.
  • Wake E, Ranse J, Marshall AP. Delivering psychosocial care and support in traumatic injury follow-up: A qualitative study of clinician’s experiences. Injury. 2026;57(9) doi: 10.1016/j.injury.2026.113198 https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S002013832600183X.