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Module 7: Head Injuries

Segment 9: The Elderly TBI Patient

References labeled PEDS contain a pediatric element or primary focus.

Topic: In-hospital falls

Topic: General in-hospital trauma patient assessment

  • Moderate to Severe Traumatic Brain Injury is a Lifelong Condition. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; Web Page. https://www.cdc.gov/traumaticbraininjury/pdf/moderate_to_severe_tbi_lifelong-a.pdf.
  • Fonseca RA, Canas M, Diaz L, et al. Prolonged hourly neurological examinations are associated with increased delirium and no discernible benefit in mild/moderate geriatric traumatic brain injury. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2024;97(1):105-111. doi: 10.1097/ta.0000000000004296 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38509046/.
  • Knight C, Burke JR, Hind S, et al. More than meets the eye: the continuing importance of tertiary trauma survey even in moderate (ISS 9-15) trauma. Injury. 2026;doi: 10.1016/j.injury.2026.113370 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42285813/.
  • Le KDR, Wang AJ, Carpio J. Clinical outcomes of trauma tertiary surveys conducted by allied health and non-medical healthcare professionals: A scoping review. Injury. 2025;56(7) doi: 10.1016/j.injury.2025.112402 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40344858/.
  • Tang P, Elkington O, Stevens S. Whole body CT-scan vs. selective CT-scan in geriatric trauma: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Trauma. 2025;0(0):14604086241304629. doi: 10.1177/14604086241304629 https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/14604086241304629.
  • Vieira LF, Grover A, Parreira JG, et al. Missed injuries in trauma care: An analysis of mechanisms and prevention of one of the surgeon’s worst nightmares. Injury. 2025;doi: 10.1016/j.injury.2025.112600 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40690819/.
  • Williamson F, Grant K, Warren J, et al. Trauma tertiary survey: Trauma service medical officers and trauma nurses detect similar rates of missed injuries. J Trauma Nurs. 2021;28(3):166-172. doi: 10.1097/jtn.0000000000000578 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33949352/.

Topic: Common geriatric patient concerns

  • Ahn ES, Kim KH, Park JH, et al. Disparity in guideline adherence for prehospital care according to patient age in emergency medical service transport for moderate to severe trauma. Injury. 2024;55(9):111630. doi: 10.1016/j.injury.2024.111630 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38839516/.
  • Alali AS, Mukherjee K, McCredie VA, et al. Beta-blockers and traumatic brain injury: A systematic review, meta-analysis, and Eastern Association for the Surgery of Trauma guideline. Ann Surg. 2017;266(6):952-961. doi: 10.1097/SLA.0000000000002286 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28525411/.
  • Alouidor R, Siu M, Roh S, et al. Impact of modified geriatric trauma activation criteria on patient outcomes at a Level I trauma center. Trauma. 2022;0(0):14604086221110972. doi: 10.1177/14604086221110972 https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/14604086221110972.
  • Alshibani A, Alharbi M, Conroy S. Under-triage of older trauma patients in prehospital care: a systematic review. Eur Geriatr Med. 2021;12(5):903-919. doi: 10.1007/s41999-021-00512-5 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34110604/.
  • Alvikas J, Myers SP, Wessel CB, et al. A systematic review and meta-analysis of traumatic intracranial hemorrhage in patients taking prehospital antiplatelet therapy: Is there a role for platelet transfusions? J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2020;88(6):847-854. doi: 10.1097/ta.0000000000002640 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32118818/.
  • Balogh ZJ, Civil ID. Futility, frailty and comorbidity scaling for elderly trauma patients and trauma registries: One scale for all. Injury. 2025;56(5):112336. doi: 10.1016/j.injury.2025.112336 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40221248/.
  • Boulton AJ, Peel D, Rahman U, et al. Evaluation of elderly specific pre-hospital trauma triage criteria: a systematic review. Scand J Trauma Resusc Emerg Med. 2021;29(1):127. doi: 10.1186/s13049-021-00940-z https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34461976/.
  • Bozorgi F, Assadi T, Sazgar M, et al. Trauma outcomes in elderly patients referring to the emergency department via the rapid emergency medicine score, injury severity score, and geriatric trauma outcome score indices. Int J Emerg Med. 2025;18(1):223. doi: 10.1186/s12245-025-01046-4 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41168700/.
  • Bragg JT, Feldman M, Balian DR, et al. Factors affecting time to surgery and mobilization following hip fracture. Injury. 2025;56(11):112726. doi: 10.1016/j.injury.2025.112726 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40885164/.
  • Brych O, Hadidi SE, Hickey P, et al. Effect of age on major trauma profile and characterisation: Analysis from the national major trauma audit in Ireland. Injury. 2025;56(6):112343. doi: 10.1016/j.injury.2025.112343 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40273659/.
  • Cameron P. Triage of older trauma patients. CJEM. 2023;doi: 10.1007/s43678-023-00581-4 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37921962/.
  • Castillo-Diaz F, Al Ma’ani M, Magnotti LJ, et al. Geriatric trauma coagulation profiles: Impact of sex on clot formation. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2026;100(2):227-232. doi: 10.1097/ta.0000000000004841 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41589733/.
  • Coulombe P, Tardif PA, Nadeau A, et al. Accuracy of prehospital trauma triage to select older adults requiring urgent and specialized trauma care. J Surg Res. 2022;275:281-290. doi: 10.1016/j.jss.2022.02.037 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35313137/.
  • Doheny K. Preventing breaks and falls in older adults. Medscape online. Medscape; 2023. May 15, 2023. doi: https://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/991944
  • Dubucs X, Gingras V, Boucher V, et al. Risk factors for traumatic intracranial hemorrhage in older adults sustaining a head injury in ground-level falls: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Ann Emerg Med. 2025;doi: 10.1016/j.annemergmed.2025.05.021 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40699169/.
  • Eamer G, Taheri A, Chen SS, et al. Comprehensive geriatric assessment for older people admitted to a surgical service. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2018;1:Cd012485. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD012485.pub2 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29385235/.
  • El-Qawaqzeh K, Magnotti LJ, Hosseinpour H, et al. Geriatric trauma, frailty, and ACS trauma center verification level: Are there any correlations with outcomes? Injury. 2024;55(1):110972. doi: 10.1016/j.injury.2023.110972 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37573210/.
  • Emigh B, Kobayashi L, Kopp M, et al. The AAST prospective observational multicenter study of the initial experience with reversal of direct oral anticoagulants in trauma patients. Am J Surg. 2021;222(2):264-269. doi: 10.1016/j.amjsurg.2020.12.034 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33612255/.
  • Gallagher SP, Capacio BA, Rooney AS, et al. Modified Brain Injury Guidelines for preinjury anticoagulation in traumatic brain injury: An opportunity to reduce health care resource utilization. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2024;96(2):240-246. doi: 10.1097/ta.0000000000004171 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37872672/.
  • Giamello JD, Martini G, Fulcheri C, et al. Impact of anticoagulant therapy on delayed intracranial haemorrhage after traumatic brain injury: A study on the role of repeat CT scans and extended observation. Injury. 2025;doi: 10.1016/j.injury.2025.112523 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40537351/.
  • Gregorevic KJ, Read DJ. Enter the trauma geriatrician……. Injury. 2024;55(9):111726. doi: 10.1016/j.injury.2024.111726 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39030099/.
  • Joseph AP, Liu BM, Botha M, et al. A prospective multi-site cohort study on the prevalence of frailty in patients aged over 70 years presenting after serious injury and implications for outcomes. Injury. 2025;doi: 10.1016/j.injury.2025.112514 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40506331/.
  • Keller DS, Curtis N, Burt HA, et al. EAES/SAGES evidence-based recommendations and expert consensus on optimization of perioperative care in older adults. Surg Endosc. 2024;38(8):4104-4126. doi: 10.1007/s00464-024-10977-7 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38942944/.
  • Koch DA, Becker L, Schweigkofler U, et al. Undertriage in geriatric trauma: insights from a multicentre cohort study. Scand J Trauma Resusc Emerg Med. 2025;33(1):123. doi: 10.1186/s13049-025-01432-0 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40640930/.
  • Koch MAG-R, Arleth T, Rosenkrantz O, et al. Interhospital transfers in elderly trauma patients. Injury. 2024;doi: 10.1016/j.injury.2024.111998 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39550344/.
  • Kornblith E, Diaz-Ramirez LG, Yaffe K, et al. Incidence of traumatic brain injury in a longitudinal cohort of older adults. JAMA Netw Open. 2024;7(5):e2414223-e2414223. doi: 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2024.14223 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38819822/.
  • Kvint S, Gutierrez A, Venezia A, et al. Application of a TEG-platelet mapping algorithm to guide reversal of antiplatelet agents in adults with mild-to-moderate traumatic brain injury: An observational pilot study. Neurocrit Care. 2022;37(3):638-648. doi: 10.1007/s12028-022-01535-x https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35705826/.
  • Larson NJ, Rhone A, Chrenka E, et al. Should platelet transfusion be used to reverse preinjury antiplatelet agents in traumatic brain injury? A systematic review and meta-analysis. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2026;100(3):493-500. doi: 10.1097/ta.0000000000004827 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41532957/.
  • Liu S, McLeod SL, Atzema CL, et al. Delayed intracranial hemorrhage after head injury among elderly patients on anticoagulation seen in the emergency department. CJEM. 2022;24(8):853-861. doi: 10.1007/s43678-022-00392-z https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36242733/.
  • Lizi H, Qingyuan W, Shuyao W, et al. Non-pharmacological interventions for preventing delirium in older adults in intensive care units: a systematic review and network meta-analysis. Arch Gerontol Geriatr. 2025;141:106075. doi: 10.1016/j.archger.2025.106075 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41240665/.
  • Louis M, Krause MA, Wolf L, et al. Delirium diagnosis timing among trauma and acute care surgery ward patients. J Trauma Nurs. 2026;33(3):154-159. doi: 10.1097/jtn.0000000000000919 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41962131/.
  • Mercadante S. Influence of aging on opioid dosing for perioperative pain management: a focus on pharmacokinetics. J Anesth Analg Crit Care. 2024;4(1):51. doi: 10.1186/s44158-024-00182-2 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39085914/.
  • Mithoowani S, Tan CW, Siegal DM. Measuring direct oral anticoagulant (DOAC) levels: Applications, limitations, and future directions. Int J Lab Hematol. 2025;doi: 10.1111/ijlh.14483 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40260639/.
  • Moorhouse J, Holt B, Dixon L, et al. Older adults in major trauma centre psychology provision. Trauma. 2025;0(0):14604086241242392. doi: 10.1177/14604086241242392 https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/14604086241242392.
  • Newgard CD, Lin A, Eckstrom E, et al. Comorbidities, anticoagulants, and geriatric-specific physiology for the field triage of injured older adults. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2019;86(5):829-837. doi: 10.1097/ta.0000000000002195 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30629015/.
  • Nordgarden T, Odland P, Guttormsen AB, et al. Undertriage of major trauma patients at a university hospital: a retrospective cohort study. Scand J Trauma Resusc Emerg Med. 2018;26(1):64. doi: 10.1186/s13049-018-0524-z https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30107855/.
  • O’Brien J, Tucker R, Nene R, et al. Risk of immediate and delayed intracranial hemorrhage after minor head trauma: DOACs vs warfarin vs no anticoagulation. Am J Emerg Med. 2026;108:175-179. doi: 10.1016/j.ajem.2026.07.006 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42468197/.
  • O’Connor B, Nasef H, Kumar S, et al. Understanding failure to rescue in geriatric trauma: A national analysis of predictors and outcomes. J Trauma Nurs. 2025;32(5):260-268. doi: 10.1097/jtn.0000000000000870 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40779785/.
  • Pankratz C, Cintean R, Hofmann M, et al. Early surgical care of the anticoagulated hip fracture patient within 24 hours. Injury. 2024;55(12) doi: 10.1016/j.injury.2024.111924 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39395386/.
  • Park C, Bharija A, Mesias M, et al. Association between implementation of a geriatric trauma clinical pathway and changes in rates of delirium in older adults with traumatic injury. JAMA Surg. 2022;doi: 10.1001/jamasurg.2022.1556 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35675065/.
  • Pruinelli L, Mathiason MA, Ma S, et al. Age differences in patients with postoperative pain and their relationships to comorbid conditions: Multivariate logistic regression analysis. AANA J. 2025;93(5):331-337. doi: 10.70278/aanaj/.0000001024 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41056143/.
  • Raats JH, Schuijt HJ, Kroes T, et al. Cranial CT scans rarely result in neurosurgical transfers in older adults over 80 years with acute head injuries: A retrospective cohort study. Injury. 2026;57(9) doi: 10.1016/j.injury.2026.113419 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.injury.2026.113419.
  • Rhodes-Lyons H, McClure DL, Locklear T, et al. Age-Stratified Outcomes After Small-Volume Isolated Blunt Traumatic Brain Injury: A National ACS-TQIP Analysis. Injury. 2026;doi: 10.1016/j.injury.2026.113595 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42580979/.
  • Saha S, DiRusso SM, Welle S, et al. Integration of geriatrician consultation for trauma admissions may benefit patient outcomes. Gerontol Geriatr Med. 2019;5:2333721419858735. doi: 10.1177/2333721419858735 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31259206/.
  • Scharringa S, Krijnen P, van de Linde P, et al. Role of trauma center level in the outcome of severely injured geriatric patients. Injury. 2025;doi: 10.1016/j.injury.2025.112201 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39904059/.
  • Silva MN, Camargo YS, da Silva TR, et al. Prognostic factors of falls in hospitalized adults and elderly: An epidemiological and clinical analysis. Injury. 2024;doi: 10.1016/j.injury.2024.111966 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39488903/.
  • Tanya E, Purvi Pravinchandra P. One for the ages: Optimizing geriatric care in the intensive care unit. Trauma Surg Acute Care Open. 2025;10(Suppl 1):e001785. doi: 10.1136/tsaco-2025-001785 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40521176/.
  • Thompson L, Hill M, Shaw G. Defining major trauma: a literature review. Br Paramed J. 2019;4(1):22-30. doi: 10.29045/14784726.2019.06.4.1.22 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33328825/.
  • Wiles LL, Day MD. Delta Alert: Expanding gerotrauma criteria to improve patient outcomes: A 2-year study. J Trauma Nurs. 2018;25(3):159-164. doi: 10.1097/jtn.0000000000000371 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29742626/.
  • Yates Z, Lee P, Espat NN, et al. Delirium in critically ill geriatric surgical patients: A systematic review of screening, risk factors, diagnosis, and management. J Trauma Nurs. 2025;doi: 10.1097/jtn.0000000000000859 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40424371/.
  • Yates Z, Lee P, Zagales R, et al. Assessment of volume and fluid resuscitation strategies for critically ill geriatric trauma patients: A systematic review. J Trauma Nurs. 2025;doi: 10.1097/jtn.0000000000000861 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40424396/.
  • Yuan K, Haddad Y, Law R, et al. Emergency department visits for alcohol-associated falls among older adults in the United States, 2011 t. Ann Emerg Med. 2023;doi: 10.1016/j.annemergmed.2023.04.013 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37204348/.

Topic: Identifying neurological deterioration

  • American Association of Neuroscience Nurses. Neurologic assessment of the older adult: A guide for nurses. 2007. AANN Clinical Practice Guideline Series. https://apps.aann.org/store/product-details?productId=192054556.
  • Boulter JH, Shields MM, Meister MR, et al. The expanding role of quantitative pupillometry in the evaluation and management of traumatic brain injury. Front Neurol. 2021;12:685313. doi: 10.3389/fneur.2021.685313 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34322081/.
  • Johnson HL, Carter-Templeton H, Lumbus R, et al. Reassessing hourly neurological assessments: A quality improvement initiative. J Neurosci Nurs. 2026;58(2):48-51. doi: 10.1097/jnn.0000000000000867 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41543580/.
  • Kerr RG, Bacon AM, Baker LL, et al. Underestimation of pupil size by critical care and neurosurgical nurses. Am J Crit Care. 2016;25(3):213-9. doi: 10.4037/ajcc2016554 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27134226/.
  • Oddo M, Taccone F, Galimberti S, et al. Outcome prognostication of acute brain injury using the neurological pupil index (ORANGE) study: Protocol for a prospective, observational, multicentre, international cohort study. BMJ Open. 2021;11(5):e046948. doi: 10.1136/bmjopen-2020-046948 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33980528/.
  • Oddo M, Taccone FS, Petrosino M, et al. The neurological pupil index for outcome prognostication in people with acute brain injury (ORANGE): A prospective, observational, multicentre cohort study. Lancet Neurol. 2023;22(10):925-933. doi: 10.1016/s1474-4422(23)00271-5 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37652068/.

Topic: Anticoagulant reversal

  • Anand T, McLoud S, Loss L, et al. Age matters: A secondary analysis of endothelial biomarkers in the Prehospital Tranexamic Acid for Traumatic Brain Injury trial. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2025;99(4):541-550. doi: 10.1097/ta.0000000000004582 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40107972/.
  • Brogi E, Corbella D, Coccolini F, et al. The role of platelet transfusions after intracranial hemorrhage in patients on antiplatelet agents: a systematic review and meta-analysis. World Neurosurg. 2020;doi: 10.1016/j.wneu.2020.03.216 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32289507/.
  • Collins CE, Witkowski ER, Flahive JM, et al. Effect of preinjury warfarin use on outcomes after head trauma in Medicare beneficiaries. Am J Surg. 2014;208(4):544-549.e1. doi: 10.1016/j.amjsurg.2014.05.019 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25129426/.
  • Curry B, Mueller S, MacLaren R. The use of prothrombin complex concentrates: Results of a nationwide survey of critical care pharmacists. J Pharm Pract. 2022;35(2):197-204. doi: 10.1177/0897190020966184 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35484869/.
  • Galli M, Simeone B, Ten Berg J, et al. Managing bleeds on anticoagulant therapy: A practical guide for clinicians. Eur Heart J Acute Cardiovasc Care. 2026;doi: 10.1093/ehjacc/zuag035 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41818678/.
  • Goldin M, Tsaftaridis N, Jnani J, et al. Reversal of direct oral anticoagulants (DOACs) for critical bleeding or urgent procedures. J Clin Med. 2025;14(3) doi: 10.3390/jcm14031013 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39941682/.
  • Keirsey M, Niziolek GM. Management of post-injury anticoagulation in the traumatic brain injury patient: A scoping review. Injury. 2025;56(2) doi: 10.1016/j.injury.2025.112159 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39753048/.
  • Khurshid MH, Al Ma’ani M, Hejazi O, et al. Fibrinogen in resuscitation of older adult trauma patients: Are they too old to receive new adjuncts? J Surg Res. 2025;315:426-434. doi: 10.1016/j.jss.2025.09.045 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41076778/.
  • Lammers D, Henry R, Williams J, et al. Prehospital tranexamic acid bolus improves outcomes in traumatic brain injury: A Bayesian reanalysis of the prehospital TXA for TBI trial. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2026;doi: 10.1097/ta.0000000000004920 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41589743/.
  • Ovesen C, Purrucker J, Grundtvig J, et al. Prothrombin complex concentrate for reversal of oral anticoagulants in patients with oral anticoagulation-related critical bleeding: a systematic review of randomised clinical trials. Scand J Trauma Resusc Emerg Med. 2025;33(1):19. doi: 10.1186/s13049-025-01334-1 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39905505/.
  • Panos NG, Jones GM, Cook AM, et al. Reversal of factor Xa inhibitor-related intracranial hemorrhage: A multicenter, retrospective, observational study comparing the efficacy and safety of andexanet and prothrombin complex concentrates. Crit Care Med. 2025;doi: 10.1097/ccm.0000000000006656 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40172261/.
  • Peck KA, Ley EJ, Brown CV, et al. Early anticoagulant reversal after trauma: A Western Trauma Association critical decisions algorithm. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2021;90(2):331-336. doi: 10.1097/ta.0000000000002979 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33055578/.
  • Popma E, Davis N, West MA. Reversal of antithrombotic medications in patients with traumatic brain injury: What you need to know. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2025;doi: 10.1097/ta.0000000000004766 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40828405/.
  • Rocca B, Ten Cate H. Antidotes for Anticoagulation Reversal. N Engl J Med. 2026;394(22):2235-2254. doi: 10.1056/NEJMra2506021 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42269153/.
  • Rowell S, Meier EN, Hoyos Gomez T, et al. The effects of prehospital TXA on mortality and neurologic outcomes in patients with traumatic intracranial hemorrhage: A subgroup analysis from the prehospital TXA for TBI trial. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2024;97(4):572-580. doi: 10.1097/ta.0000000000004354 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38685481/.
  • Savioli F, Maiolino J, Rocha L. Andexanet alfa for the management of severe bleeding: What should critical care physicians know about it? Crit Care Sci. 2024;36:e20240178en. doi: 10.62675/2965-2774.20240178-en https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39442136/.
  • Schrader E, Zinser B, Kulhari A, et al. Evaluating the use of fixed versus variable dosing of 4-factor prothrombin complex concentrate in anticoagulant-related major bleeding. Am J Emerg Med. 2025;99:276-279. doi: 10.1016/j.ajem.2025.10.019 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41106151/.
  • Shin SS, Marsh EB, Ali H, et al. Comparison of traumatic intracranial hemorrhage expansion and outcomes among patients on direct oral anticoagulants versus vitamin K antagonists. Neurocrit Care. 2020;32(2):407-418. doi: 10.1007/s12028-019-00898-y https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32034657/.
  • Utsumi S, Kawakami A, Amemiya Y. Optimal dose of tranexamic acid in traumatic brain injury: Systematic review and network meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2025;98(5):816-823. doi: 10.1097/ta.0000000000004500 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39652152/.
  • Wiegele M, Schochl H, Haushofer A, et al. Diagnostic and therapeutic approach in adult patients with traumatic brain injury receiving oral anticoagulant therapy: an Austrian interdisciplinary consensus statement. Crit Care. 2019;23(1):62. doi: 10.1186/s13054-019-2352-6 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30795779/.
  • Yorkgitis BK, Tatum DM, Taghavi S, et al. Eastern Association for the Surgery of Trauma Multicenter Trial: Comparison of pre-injury antithrombotic use and reversal strategies among severe traumatic brain injury patients. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2022;92(1):88-92. doi: 10.1097/ta.0000000000003421 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34570064/.