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Module 3: The Body's Response to Injury

Segment 1: Shock

References labeled PEDS contain a pediatric element or primary focus.

Topic: Approach to trauma patient care

  • Brito AM, Schreiber M. x-ABC versus ABC: Shifting paradigms in early trauma resuscitation. Trauma Surg Acute Care Open. 2025;10(Suppl 1):e001773. doi: 10.1136/tsaco-2025-001773 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40400727/.
  • Brito AMP, Schreiber M. Prehospital resuscitation. Trauma Surg Acute Care Open. 2021;6(1):e000729. doi: 10.1136/tsaco-2021-000729 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34041365/.
  • Choi D, Jung K. Circulation-first trauma resuscitation and mortality: A 9-year single-center retrospective study. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2025;doi: 10.1097/ta.0000000000004850 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41417671/.
  • Ferrada P, Callcut RA, Skarupa DJ, et al. Circulation first - the time has come to question the sequencing of care in the ABCs of trauma; an American Association for the Surgery of Trauma multicenter trial. World J Emerg Surg. 2018;13:8. doi: 10.1186/s13017-018-0168-3 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29441123/.
  • Ferrada P, Duchesne J, Piehl M. Prioritizing circulation over airway in trauma patients with exsanguinating injuries: What you need to know. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2025;99(5):679-683. doi: 10.1097/ta.0000000000004618 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40611386/.
  • Ferrada P, García A, Duchesne J, et al. Comparing outcomes in patients with exsanguinating injuries: an Eastern Association for the Surgery of Trauma (EAST), multicenter, international trial evaluating prioritization of circulation over intubation (CAB over ABC). World J Emerg Surg. 2024;19(1):15. doi: 10.1186/s13017-024-00545-8 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38664763/.
  • Godwin SA, Hahn SA, Friedman BW, et al. Clinical policy: Critical issues in the management of adult patients requiring endotracheal intubation in the emergency department. Ann Emerg Med. 2025;86(2):e29-e68. doi: 10.1016/j.annemergmed.2025.04.003 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40685219/.
  • Lin LC, April MD, Douin DJ, et al. Airway management in trauma patients: A seven-year review of emergency department intubations. Am J Emerg Med. 2025;99:306-312. doi: 10.1016/j.ajem.2025.10.023 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41135359/.
  • Yousefi MR, Ghasemian M, Paydar S. The role of vasopressin in trauma resuscitation: a protocol of a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized and observational studies. Scand J Trauma Resusc Emerg Med. 2026;34(1) doi: 10.1186/s13049-026-01581-w https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41673696/.

Topic: Shock definitions

  • Blumlein D, Griffiths I. Shock: aetiology, pathophysiology and management. Br J Nurs. 2022;31(8):422-428. doi: 10.12968/bjon.2022.31.8.422 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35439071/.
  • Standl T, Annecke T, Cascorbi I, et al. The nomenclature, definition and distinction of types of shock. Dtsch Arztebl Int. 2018;115(45):757-768. doi: 10.3238/arztebl.2018.0757 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30573009/.
  • Weigand L, Viers T, Tipton E. Integration of rapid response teams and early warning systems to reduce cardiac arrests and intensive care unit readmissions. Crit Care Nurse. 2025;45(4):49-56. doi: 10.4037/ccn2025131 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40748923/.
  • Winterbottom FA. From reactive to proactive: A novel rapid response system. Crit Care Nurse. 2025;45(2):74-76. doi: 10.4037/ccn2025623 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40168007/.

Topic: Shock types

  • Angriman F, Momenzade N, Adhikari NKJ, et al. Blood pressure targets for adults with vasodilatory shock: An individual patient data meta-analysis. NEJM Evid. 2025;4(1):EVIDoa2400359. doi: 10.1056/EVIDoa2400359 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39556565/.
  • Batchelor RJ, Dipnall JF, Read D, et al. Prevalence and clinical outcomes of acute myocardial infarction in patients presenting with major trauma. Injury. 2024;doi: 10.1016/j.injury.2024.111996 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39516144/.
  • Cardenas JC, Dong JF, Kozar RA. Injury-induced endotheliopathy: What you need to know. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2023;95(4):454-463. doi: 10.1097/TA.0000000000004082 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37314417/.
  • Es-Saad O, Ng W, Messina A, et al. Current perspectives in cardiogenic shock. J Crit Care. 2026;93:155471. doi: 10.1016/j.jcrc.2026.155471 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41655405/.
  • Fecher A, Stimpson A, Ferrigno L, et al. The pathophysiology and management of hemorrhagic shock in the polytrauma patient. J Clin Med. 2021;10(20) doi: 10.3390/jcm10204793 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34682916/.
  • Gallagher LT, LaCroix I, Fields AT, et al. Platelet releasates mitigate the endotheliopathy of trauma. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2024;97(5):738-746. doi: 10.1097/ta.0000000000004342 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38764145/.
  • Joffre J, Radermacher P, Kallel H, et al. Vascular leakage during circulatory failure: physiopathology, impact and treatments. Ann Intensive Care. 2025;15(1):79. doi: 10.1186/s13613-025-01474-8 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40473887/.
  • Jung C, Bruno RR, Jumean M, et al. Management of cardiogenic shock: state-of-the-art. Intensive Care Med. 2024;doi: 10.1007/s00134-024-07618-x https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39254735/.
  • Kosyakovsky LB, Marbach JA, Nguyen K, et al. Outcomes in cardiogenic shock: the role of surrogate endpoints. Curr Opin Crit Care. 2022;doi: 10.1097/mcc.0000000000000963 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35757956/.
  • Laghlam D, Benghanem S, Ortuno S, et al. Management of cardiogenic shock: a narrative review. Ann Intensive Care. 2024;14(1):45. doi: 10.1186/s13613-024-01260-y https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38553663/.
  • Lee JH, Ward KR. Blood failure: traumatic hemorrhage and the interconnections between oxygen debt, endotheliopathy, and coagulopathy. Clin Exp Emerg Med. 2023;doi: 10.15441/ceem.23.127 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38018069/.
  • Lüsebrink E, Binzenhöfer L, Adamo M, et al. Cardiogenic shock. Lancet. 2024;404(10466):2006-2020. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(24)01818-x https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39550175/.
  • Mendes H, King J, Kumar N, et al. Mortality effect of higher versus lower blood pressure targets in vasodilatory shock: an updated systematic review and meta-analysis. Crit Care. 2025;doi: 10.1186/s13054-025-05769-x https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41276856/.
  • Meza Monge K, Rosa C, Sublette C, et al. Navigating hemorrhagic shock: Biomarkers, therapies, and challenges in clinical care. Biomedicines. 2024;12(12) doi: 10.3390/biomedicines12122864 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39767770/.
  • Møller JE, Hassager C, Proudfoot A, et al. Cardiogenic shock: diagnosis, phenotyping and management. Intensive Care Med. 2025;doi: 10.1007/s00134-025-08049-y https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40768067/.
  • Naumann DN, Hazeldine J, Davies DJ, et al. Endotheliopathy of trauma is an on-scene phenomenon and is associated with multiple organ dysfunction syndrome: A prospective observational study. Shock. 2018;49(4):420-428. doi: 10.1097/shk.0000000000000999 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28945676/.
  • Oliveira MDCd, Santos OFPd, Colombo G, et al. Uncomplicated circulatory shock: a narrative review. Einstein (Sao Paulo). 2024;22(spe1):-. doi: 10.31744/einstein_journal/2024RW0775 https://journal.einstein.br/article/uncomplicated-circulatory-shock-a-narrative-review/.
  • Patel S, Holden K, Calvin B, et al. Shock. Crit Care Nurs Q. 2022;45(3):225-232. doi: 10.1097/cnq.0000000000000407 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35617089/.
  • Ross JT, Robles AJ, Mazer MB, et al. Cell-free hemoglobin in the pathophysiology of trauma: A scoping review. Crit Care Explor. 2024;6(2):e1052. doi: 10.1097/cce.0000000000001052 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38352942/.
  • Sarraf M, Nagaraja V. Navigating the complex terrain of cardiogenic shock. Heart Lung Circ. 2025;34(5):412-415. doi: 10.1016/j.hlc.2025.04.077 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40345785/.
  • Thiele H, Hassager C. Cardiogenic Shock. N Engl J Med. 2026;394(1):62-77. doi: 10.1056/NEJMra2312086 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41467651/.
  • Thielen O, Mitra S, Debot M, et al. Mitigation of trauma-induced endotheliopathy by activated protein C: A potential therapeutic for postinjury thromboinflammation. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2024;96(1):116-122. doi: 10.1097/ta.0000000000004142 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37733304/.
  • Wu F, Chipman A, Pati S, et al. Resuscitative strategies to modulate the endotheliopathy of trauma: From cell to patient. Shock. 2020;53(5):575-584. doi: 10.1097/shk.0000000000001378 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31090680/.
  • Zeineddin A, Wu F, Chao W, et al. Biomarkers of endothelial cell dysfunction persist beyond resuscitation in patients with hemorrhagic shock. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2022;93(5):572-578. doi: 10.1097/ta.0000000000003758 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35939376/.
  • Zhao X, Guo F, Wang C, et al. Characteristics and risk factors of myocardial injury after traumatic hemorrhagic shock. J Clin Med. 2022;11(16) doi: 10.3390/jcm11164799 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36013038/.

Topic: Fluid compartments & body water distribution

  • Dull RO, Hahn RG. Physiology and molecular mechanisms of the “third fluid space”. J Clin Med. 2025;14(23) doi: 10.3390/jcm14238491 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41375794/.
  • Seifter J. Body fluid compartments, cell membrane ion transport, electrolyte concentrations, and acid-base balance. Semin Nephrol. 2019;39(4):368−379. doi: 10.1016/j.semnephrol.2019.04.006 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31300092/.