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Module 7: Head Injuries

Segment 11: End-of-Life & Emotional Care Concerns

References labeled PEDS contain a pediatric element or primary focus.

Topic: TBI prognosis/outomes

  • Andelic N, Howe EI, Hellstrøm T, et al. Disability and quality of life 20 years after traumatic brain injury. Brain Behav. 2018;8(7):e01018. doi: 10.1002/brb3.1018 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29888869/.
  • Bryant AM, Rose NB, Temkin NR, et al. Profiles of cognitive functioning at 6 months after traumatic brain injury among patients in level I trauma centers: A TRACK-TBI study. JAMA Netw Open. 2023;6(12):e2349118. doi: 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2023.49118 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38147333/.
  • Castillo-Angeles M, Zogg CK, Smith CB, et al. Predictors of healthy days at home: Benchmarking long-term outcomes in geriatric trauma. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2025;98(4):600-604. doi: 10.1097/ta.0000000000004542 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39702236/.
  • Cook AC, Joseph B, Mohler MJ, et al. Validation of a geriatric trauma prognosis calculator: A P.A.L.Li.A.T.E. Consortium study. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2017;65(10):2302-2307. doi: 10.1111/jgs.15009 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28804877/.
  • Faiver L, Steinberg A. Timing of neuroprognostication in the ICU. Curr Opin Crit Care. 2025;doi: 10.1097/mcc.0000000000001241 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39808443/.
  • Ghneim M, Brasel K, Vesselinov R, et al. Traumatic brain injury in older adults: Characteristics, outcomes, and considerations. Results from the American Association for the Surgery of Trauma Geriatric Traumatic Brain Injury (GERI-TBI) Multicenter Trial. J Am Med Dir Assoc. 2022;23(4):568-575.e1. doi: 10.1016/j.jamda.2022.01.085 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35283084/.
  • Giacino JT, Katz DI, Schiff ND, et al. Practice guideline update recommendations summary: Disorders of consciousness: Report of the Guideline Development, Dissemination, and Implementation Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology, the American Congress of Rehabilitation Medicine, and the National Institute on Disability, Independent Living, and Rehabilitation Research. Neurology. 2018;91(10):450-460. doi: 10.1212/wnl.0000000000005926 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30089618/.
  • Golden K, Borsi L, Sterling A, et al. Recovery after moderate to severe TBI and factors influencing functional outcome: What you need to know. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2024;97(3):343-355. doi: 10.1097/ta.0000000000004305 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38439156/.
  • Iaquaniello C, Scordo E, Robba C. Prediction of functional outcome after traumatic brain injury: a narrative review. Curr Opin Crit Care. 2025;doi: 10.1097/mcc.0000000000001290 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40522960/.
  • Iddagoda MT, Trevenen M, Meaton C, et al. Identifying factors predicting outcomes after major trauma in older patients: Prognostic systematic review and meta-analysis. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2024;97(3):478-487. doi: 10.1097/ta.0000000000004320 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38523141/.
  • Jarman MP, Jin G, Weissman JS, et al. Association of trauma center designation with postdischarge survival among older adults with injuries. JAMA Netw Open. 2022;5(3):e222448-e222448. doi: 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2022.2448 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35294541/.
  • Karabacak M, Jagtiani P, Dams-O’Connor K, et al. The MOST (Mortality Score for TBI): A novel prediction model beyond CRASH-Basic and IMPACT-Core for isolated traumatic brain injury. Injury. 2024;doi: 10.1016/j.injury.2024.111956 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39428266/.
  • Lai K, Anantha RV, Fawcett V, et al. Early predictors of discharge to home among severely injured geriatric patients: A single-system retrospective cohort study. Trauma. 2022;24(2):154-163. doi: 10.1177/1460408620982261 https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1460408620982261.
  • Laing J, Gabbe B, Chen Z, et al. Risk factors and prognosis of early posttraumatic seizures in moderate to severe traumatic brain injury. JAMA Neurol. 2022;79(4):334-341. doi: 10.1001/jamaneurol.2021.5420 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35188950/.
  • Lin PC, Liu CY, Tzeng IS, et al. Shock index, modified shock index, age shock index score, and reverse shock index multiplied by Glasgow Coma Scale predicting clinical outcomes in traumatic brain injury: Evidence from a 10-year analysis in a single center. Front Med (Lausanne). 2022;9:999481. doi: 10.3389/fmed.2022.999481 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36482909/.
  • Livingston DH, Tripp T, Biggs C, et al. A fate worse than death? Long-term outcome of trauma patients admitted to the surgical intensive care unit. J Trauma. 2009;67(2):341-8; discussion 348-9. doi: 10.1097/TA.0b013e3181a5cc34 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19667888/.
  • Looi MC, Idris Z, Kumaran T, et al. A study of 309 patients and at one year follow-up for depression after traumatic brain injury. J Neurotrauma. 2023;40(1-2):94-101. doi: 10.1089/neu.2022.0031 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36017631/.
  • Lotfalla A, Halm J, Schepers T, et al. Health-related quality of life after severe trauma and available PROMS: an updated review (part I). Eur J Trauma Emerg Surg. 2023;49(2):747-761. doi: 10.1007/s00068-022-02178-5 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36445397/.
  • Muehlschlegel S, Rajajee V, Wartenberg KE, et al. Guidelines for neuroprognostication in critically ill adults with moderate-severe traumatic brain injury. Neurocrit Care. 2024;40(2):448-476. doi: 10.1007/s12028-023-01902-2 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38366277/.
  • National Academies of Sciences Engineering and Medicine. Improving systems of follow-up care for traumatic brain injury: Proceedings of a workshop. The National Academies Press; 2023. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37903193/.
  • Pease M, Arefan D, Barber J, et al. Outcome prediction in patients with severe traumatic brain injury using deep learning from head CT scans. Radiology. 2022:212181. doi: 10.1148/radiol.212181 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35471108/.
  • Pham X, Ray J, Neto AS, et al. Association of neurocritical care services with mortality and functional outcomes for adults with brain injury: A systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Neurol. 2022;doi: 10.1001/jamaneurol.2022.2456 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36036899/.
  • Rauen K, Reichelt L, Probst P, et al. Quality of life up to 10 years after traumatic brain injury: a cross-sectional analysis. Health Qual Life Outcomes. 2020;18(1):166. doi: 10.1186/s12955-020-01391-3 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32498679/.
  • Sanders WR, Barber JK, Temkin NR, et al. Recovery potential in patients who died after withdrawal of life-sustaining treatment: A TRACK-TBI propensity score analysis. J Neurotrauma. 2024;doi: 10.1089/neu.2024.0014 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38739032/.
  • Shan H, Chen R. Life support use and outcomes among patients admitted to intensive care units. JAMA. 2025;doi: 10.1001/jama.2025.10247 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40788601/.
  • Silverberg ND, Lee K, Mikolić A, et al. Action Collaborative on Traumatic Brain Injury Care: Adapted clinical practice guideline. J Neurotrauma. 2025;doi: 10.1177/08977151251378894 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40966132/.
  • Spencer AL, Miller PRI, Russell GB, et al. Timing is everything: Early versus late palliative care consults in trauma. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2023;94(5):652-658. doi: 10.1097/ta.0000000000003881 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36627752/.
  • Utsumi S, Ohki S, Shime N. Epidemiology of moderate traumatic brain injury and factors associated with poor neurological outcome. J Neurosurg. 2024:1-6. doi: 10.3171/2024.1.Jns232627 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38552232/.
  • Vargas-Ardila PA, Rondón M, Bonilla-Lersundy MC, et al. Continuum of Irreversible and Potentially Reversible Traumatic Brain Injury Sequelae: Axonal Injury and Hydrocephalus. Korean J Neurotrauma. 2026;22(3):182-199. doi: 10.13004/kjnt.2026.22.e32 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42564451/.

Topic: TBI basic care requirements

  • Arabi YM, Stoppe C, Casaer MP, et al. Feeding the injured brain: nutrients, dose, timing, and monitoring. Intensive Care Med. 2026;52(3):512-526. doi: 10.1007/s00134-026-08324-6 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41801269/.
  • Atallah S, Lee BJ, Lo A, et al. Balancing safety and efficacy: Assessment of a weight-based, anti-Xa-guided enoxaparin venous thromboembolism prophylaxis dosing strategy for traumatic brain injury patients. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2025;99(4):551-559. doi: 10.1097/ta.0000000000004701 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40492862/.
  • Dunthorne S, Kirsanovs S, Wilson-Beddoe N, et al. Nutrition therapy in patients with moderate to severe traumatic brain injury in the inpatient rehabilitation and subacute setting: A scoping review. Injury. 2025;56(12):112844. doi: 10.1016/j.injury.2025.112844 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41187520/.
  • Howroyd F, McWilliams D, Weblin J, et al. Rehabilitation in the intensive care unit for adults with traumatic brain injury: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Neurocrit Care. 2026;doi: 10.1007/s12028-026-02551-x https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42174305/.
  • Kapitanski L, Thiyagarajah K, Makedonov I, et al. Clinical characteristics, management, and outcomes of traumatic cerebral venous sinus thrombosis. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2026;100(1):90-96. doi: 10.1097/ta.0000000000004774 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40956305/.
  • Karmur BS, Mann JA, Leung AA, et al. Early versus late initiation of chemical venous thromboembolism prophylaxis in adult patients with severe traumatic brain injury: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Neurocrit Care. 2025;doi: 10.1007/s12028-025-02404-z https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41239163/.
  • Lee PM, Nunes N, Zagales R, et al. Outcomes of early versus late tracheostomy in geriatric trauma with severe traumatic brain injury. J Trauma Nurs. 2025;doi: 10.1097/jtn.0000000000000894 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41202164/.
  • Pirouzmand F, Mathieu F, Mansouri A, et al. Prophylaxis for venous thromboembolism in traumatic brain injury: protocol for a randomised controlled trial. BMJ Open. 2025;15(12):e114158. doi: 10.1136/bmjopen-2025-114158 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41453781/.
  • Prieto-Alvarado DE, Parada-Gereda HM, Molano D, et al. Risk factors and outcomes of ventilator-associated pneumonia in patients with traumatic brain injury: A systematic review and meta-analysis. J Crit Care. 2025;85:154922. doi: 10.1016/j.jcrc.2024.154922 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39362181/.
  • Ratnasekera A, Harris M, Caplan R, et al. Battling the conundrum of bleeding and clotting: Initiation of venous thromboembolism prophylaxis in traumatic brain injury after neurosurgical intervention. J Am Coll Surg. 2026;242(2):401-413. doi: 10.1097/xcs.0000000000001611 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40888494/.
  • Van Gent JM, Burczak KW, Bavishi DA, et al. Venous thromboembolism in traumatic brain injury patients despite aggressive early chemoprophylaxis. Am J Surg. 2026;251:116683. doi: 10.1016/j.amjsurg.2025.116683 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41176827/.
  • Velozo BC, Hong MV, Bernardo LC, et al. Pressure injuries: Prevention, treatment, and complications—Part II. An Bras Dermatol. 2025;100(6):501215. doi: 10.1016/j.abd.2025.501215 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41151366/.
  • Villarin Ayala S, Hejazi O, Al Ma’ani M, et al. Early venous thromboembolism prophylaxis in Brain Injury Guidelines 1 and Brain Injury Guidelines 2 traumatic brain injury patients: A 5-year analysis. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2025;doi: 10.1097/ta.0000000000004647 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40307971/.
  • Wittholz K, Fetterplace K, Chapple LA, et al. Six-month outcomes after traumatic brain injury in the Augmented versus Routine Approach to Giving Energy multicentre, double-blind, randomised controlled Trial (TARGET). Aust Crit Care. 2025;38(2):101116. doi: 10.1016/j.aucc.2024.09.001 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39389845/.
  • Wu Y-T, Chien C-Y, Matsushima K, et al. Early venous thromboembolism prophylaxis in patients with trauma intracranial hemorrhage: Analysis of the prospective multicenter Consortium of Leaders in Traumatic Thromboembolism study. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2023;95(5):649-656. doi: 10.1097/ta.0000000000004007 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37314427/.

Topic: Family, EoL, & palliative care

  • Advance decisions, advance statements and living wills. Factsheet. Factsheet 72. Age UK; 2026:16. April 2022. doi: https://www.ageuk.org.uk/globalassets/age-uk/documents/factsheets/fs72_advance_decisions_advance_statements_and_living_wills_fcs.pdf
  • Ahluwalia S, Bandini J, Maglione M, et al. Care of bereaved persons: A systematic review. Ann Intern Med. 2026;doi: 10.7326/annals-24-03679 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41628451/.
  • Chassé M, Shankar JJS, Fergusson DA, et al. Computed tomography perfusion and angiography for death by neurologic criteria. JAMA Neurol. 2025;doi: 10.1001/jamaneurol.2025.2375 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40512483/.
  • Cole E, Jarman H. Palliative and end of life care in older major trauma - A point prevalence evaluation in England, Wales and Scotland. Injury. 2026:113199. doi: 10.1016/j.injury.2026.113199 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42031637/.
  • Cole E, Jarman H, Pecot collaborators. Palliative and end of life care in older major trauma – A point prevalence evaluation in England, Wales and Scotland. Injury. 2026;57(9) doi: 10.1016/j.injury.2026.113199 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.injury.2026.113199.
  • Denke NJ. Emergency Nurses Association position statement: Palliative and end-of-life care in the emergency setting. J Emerg Nurs. 2025;51(5):770-776. doi: 10.1016/j.jen.2025.02.011 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40876919/.
  • Haksteen WE, Bax RJ, Velseboer DC, et al. Neurological outcome beyond the ICU in patients with severe acute brain injury: A knowledge gap for ICU teams. J Intensive Care Med. 2025:8850666251375411. doi: 10.1177/08850666251375411 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40938897/.
  • Hansen L, Goodell TT, DeHaven J, et al. Nurses’ perceptions of end-of-life care after multiple interventions for improvement. Am J Crit Care. 2009;18(3):263-271. doi: 10.4037/ajcc2009727 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19411585/.
  • Hare EC. Respiratory distress observation scale and medication administration. Crit Care Nurse. 2025;45(4):63-67. doi: 10.4037/ccn2025268 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40748925/.
  • Haruta A, O’Connell K. Adopting the Fourth Pillar of Acute Care Surgery: The Current State of Palliative Medicine in Trauma Care. Curr Trauma Rep. 2026;12(1):11. doi: 10.1007/s40719-026-00311-y https://doi.org/10.1007/s40719-026-00311-y.
  • Hills TE. Brain death: A review of the latest guidelines. Nursing2024. 2024;54(8):17-23. doi: 10.1097/nsg.0000000000000038 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39051952/.
  • Jensen HI, Halvorsen K, Jerpseth H, et al. Practice recommendations for end-of-life care in the intensive care unit. Crit Care Nurse. 2020;40(3):14-22. doi: 10.4037/ccn2020834 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32476029/.
  • Kiker WA, Rutz Voumard R, Andrews LIB, et al. Assessment of discordance between physicians and family members regarding prognosis in patients with severe acute brain injury. JAMA Netw Open. 2021;4(10):e2128991-e2128991. doi: 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2021.28991 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34673964/.
  • Kordasiewicz L, Fik K, Petry C, et al. Mitigating skin failure in critically ill patients at the end of life: A case report. Crit Care Nurse. 2025;45(4):38-42. doi: 10.4037/ccn2025450 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40748930/.
  • Larson NJ, Dries DJ, Blondeau B, et al. Brain death/death by neurologic criteria: What you need to know. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2024;97(2):165-174. doi: 10.1097/ta.0000000000004266 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38273450/.
  • Lee DB. Navigating trauma patients and families through unfamiliar territory. J Trauma Nurs. 2023;30(1):59-63. doi: 10.1097/jtn.0000000000000700 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36633348/.
  • Leske JS, McAndrew NS, Brasel KJ, et al. Family presence during resuscitation after trauma. J Trauma Nurs. 2017;24(2):85-96. doi: 10.1097/jtn.0000000000000271 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28272181/.
  • Luckett A. End-of-life care guidelines and care plans in the intensive care unit. Br J Nurs. 2017;26(5):287-293. doi: 10.12968/bjon.2017.26.5.287 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28328270/.
  • Lv Y, Li P, Li R, et al. The impact of patient- and family-centered care interventions on intensive care unit outcomes: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Braz J Anesthesiol. 2024;75(1):844577. doi: 10.1016/j.bjane.2024.844577 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39608600/.
  • Marshall MF, Davis FD, Fogelman PA, et al. Society of Critical Care Medicine clinical practice guidelines on adult end-of-life care in the ICU. Crit Care Med. 2025;53(12):e2734-e2746. doi: 10.1097/ccm.0000000000006856 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41342842/.
  • Martz K, Alderden J, Bassett R, et al. Outcomes associated with a nurse-driven palliative care screening tool in the intensive care unit. Crit Care Nurse. 2020;40(3):23-29. doi: 10.4037/ccn2020702 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32476026/.
  • McAdam J, Gularte-Rinaldo J, Kim S, et al. Health care professionals’ views and practices regarding bereavement support. Am J Crit Care. 2025;34(2):84-94. doi: 10.4037/ajcc2025717 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40021358/.
  • Moorhouse J, Holt B, Dixon L, et al. Older adults in major trauma centre psychology provision. Trauma. 2025;27(2):122-127. doi: 10.1177/14604086241242392 https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/14604086241242392.
  • Newman A, Lasseigne J, Goldhirsch S, et al. Palliative care specialty nursing in medical intensive care units. Crit Care Nurse. 2025;45(4):43-48. doi: 10.4037/ccn2025739 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40748924/.
  • O’Connell K, Fritzeen J, Guzzetta CE, et al. Family presence during trauma resuscitation: Family members’ attitudes, behaviors, and experiences. Am J Crit Care. 2017;26(3):229-239. doi: 10.4037/ajcc2017503 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28461545/.
  • O’Connell K, Maier R. Palliative care in the trauma ICU. Curr Opin Crit Care. 2016;22(6):584-590. doi: 10.1097/mcc.0000000000000357 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27661439/.
  • Robinson L, Dewhurst F, Huggin A, et al. Exploring older people’s end-of-life care preferences over time: A scoping review. Palliat Med. 2025:2692163251331161. doi: 10.1177/02692163251331161 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40285379/.
  • Velez DR, Irons TD, Opimo AB, et al. SAFE-GOALS: a protocol for goals of care discussions in the intensive care unit. Trauma Surg Acute Care Open. 2025;10(1):e001663. doi: 10.1136/tsaco-2024-001663 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39845996/.
  • Willard EG, Wiencek C. Palliative sedation therapy: A case report. Crit Care Nurse. 2022;42(6):47-52. doi: 10.4037/ccn2022377 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36453062/.
  • Williams A, Bass GD, Hampton S, et al. Delayed withdrawal of life-sustaining treatment in disorders of consciousness: Practical and theoretical considerations. Neurocrit Care. 2024;doi: 10.1007/s12028-024-02143-7 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39407075/.
  • Wright M. Don’t wait: Palliative care referrals can be life-changing. Ann Intern Med. 2025;178(8):1205-1206. doi: 10.7326/annals-25-00898 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40825215/.
  • Wylie J, Miller P, Spencer A, et al. An Objective Trigger for Early Palliative Care in Severely Injured Trauma Patients. J Surg Res. 2026;326:167-175. doi: 10.1016/j.jss.2026.06.028 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42419064/.

Topic: Care provider stress

  • Blok AC, Valley TS, Weston LE, et al. Factors affecting psychological distress in family caregivers of critically ill patients: A qualitative study. Am J Crit Care. 2023;32(1):21-30. doi: 10.4037/ajcc2023593 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36587003/.
  • Browning AM. Moral distress and psychological empowerment in critical care nurses caring for adults at end of life. Am J Crit Care. 2013;22(2):143-151. doi: 10.4037/ajcc2013437 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23455864/.
  • Chuang CH, Tseng PC, Lin CY, et al. Burnout in the intensive care unit professionals: A systematic review. Medicine (Baltimore). 2016;95(50):e5629. doi: 10.1097/md.0000000000005629 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27977605/.
  • Drabish K, Duvall NM, Maduakonam CL, et al. An examination of vicarious trauma among trauma clinicians: A mixed methods study. J Trauma Nurs. 2025;doi: 10.1097/jtn.0000000000000871 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40811771/.
  • Ganesh S, Joseph J. Clinician grief, moral distress, and moral injury in traumatic brain injury care: an integrative narrative. Neurosurg Focus. 2026;61(2):E3. doi: 10.3171/2026.4.Focus2619 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42541816/.
  • Harris C, Griffin MT. Nursing on empty: compassion fatigue signs, symptoms, and system interventions. J Christ Nurs. 2015;32(2):80-7. doi:  https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25898441/.
  • Hinderer KA, VonRueden KT, Friedmann E, et al. Burnout, compassion fatigue, compassion satisfaction, and secondary traumatic stress in trauma nurses. J Trauma Nurs. 2014;21(4):160-169. doi: 10.1097/jtn.0000000000000055 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25023839/.
  • Johnson-Coyle L, Opgenorth D, Bellows M, et al. Moral distress and burnout among cardiovascular surgery intensive care unit healthcare professionals: A prospective cross-sectional survey. Can J Crit Care Nurs. 2016;27(4):27-36. doi:  https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29786979/.
  • Laskowski-Jones L. Beyond stress management: Targeted solutions for nurse burnout. Nursing. 2025;55(3):6. doi: 10.1097/nsg.0000000000000159 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39980105/.
  • Mealer M, Hodapp R, Conrad D, et al. Designing a resilience program for critical care nurses. AACN Adv Crit Care. 2017;28(4):359-365. doi: 10.4037/aacnacc2017252 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29212643/.
  • Moss M, Good VS, Gozal D, et al. An official Critical Care Societies Collaborative statement—burnout syndrome in critical care health care professionals: A call for action. Chest. 2016;150(1):17-26. doi: 10.1016/j.chest.2016.02.649 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27396776/.
  • Royal College of Nursing. Violence and aggression in the NHS: Estimating the size and the impact of the problem. 2018. https://www.rcn.org.uk/professional-development/publications/pub-007301.
  • Sacco TL, Ciurzynski SM, Harvey ME, et al. Compassion satisfaction and compassion fatigue among critical care nurses. Crit Care Nurse. 2015;35(4):32-42. doi: 10.4037/ccn2015392 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26232800/.
  • Sumner S. Moral injury among intensive care unit nurses: Roles of moral resilience and a healthy work environment. Am J Crit Care. 2026;35(2):118-126. doi: 10.4037/ajcc2026648 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41763892/.
  • Vento S, Cainelli F, Vallone A. Violence against healthcare workers: A worldwide phenomenon with serious consequences. Front Public Health. 2020;8:570459. doi: 10.3389/fpubh.2020.570459 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33072706/.
  • Xu Z, Zhao B, Zhang Z, et al. Prevalence and associated factors of secondary traumatic stress in emergency nurses: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur J Psychotraumatol. 2024;15(1):2321761. doi: 10.1080/20008066.2024.2321761 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38426665/.
  • Yoon JE, Cho O-H. Intention to stay in specialist trauma nurses: Relationship with role conflict, stress, and organizational support. J Trauma Nurs. 2022;29(1):21-28. doi: 10.1097/jtn.0000000000000628 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35007247/.