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Module 7: Head Injuries

Segment 7: Epidural Hematoma & Herniation

References labeled PEDS contain a pediatric element or primary focus.

Topic: General intracranial bleeds

  • Ficke J, Varacallo M. Anatomy, head and neck, foramen magnum. StatPearls. National Institute of Health; 2026. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK526041/.
  • Johnson EH, Lee JS, Cripps MW, et al. Combined intracranial hemorrhage subtypes should not change modified Brain Injury Guidelines criteria. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2026;100(3):393-397. doi: 10.1097/ta.0000000000004864 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41670407/.
  • Quiñones-Ossa GA, Durango-Espinosa Y, Padilla-Zambrano H, et al. The puzzle of spontaneous versus traumatic intracranial hemorrhages. Egypt J Neurosurg. 2020;35(1):13. doi: 10.1186/s41984-020-00084-9 https://doi.org/10.1186/s41984-020-00084-9.
  • Raats JH, Schuijt HJ, Hoogervorst ELJ, et al. Prevalence and presenting symptoms of intracranial hemorrhage in older adults presenting with subacute head injuries in a level-2 trauma center: A retrospective cohort study. Injury. 2026;57(9) doi: 10.1016/j.injury.2026.113417 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.injury.2026.113417.

Topic: Epidural hematomas

  • Khairat A, Waseem M. Epidural hematoma. StatPearls. StatPearls Publishing; 2025. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK518982/.
  • Malmi K, Pisică D, Hossain I, et al. Blood biomarkers for identifying epidural hematoma in patients presenting with a Glasgow Coma Scale of 13–15: A Collaborative European NeuroTrauma Effectiveness Research in Traumatic Brain Injury (CENTER-TBI) study. J Neurotrauma. 2026:8977151261430239. doi: 10.1177/08977151261430239 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41870014/.

Topic: Increased ICP

  • Cortes MX, Siaron KB, Nadim HT, et al. Neurological pupil index as an indicator of irreversible cerebral edema: A case series. J Neurosci Nurs. 2021;53(3) doi: 10.1097/JNN.0000000000000584 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33782353/.
  • Fernando SM, Tran A, Cheng W, et al. Diagnosis of elevated intracranial pressure in critically ill adults: systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ. 2019;366:l4225. doi: 10.1136/bmj.l4225 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31340932/.
  • Giamarino K, Blessing R, Boelter C, et al. Exploring the relationship between objective pupillometry metrics and midline shift. J Neurosci Nurs. 2021;53(6):233-237. doi: 10.1097/jnn.0000000000000614 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34593723/.
  • Hladky SB, Barrand MA. Regulation of brain fluid volumes and pressures: basic principles, intracranial hypertension, ventriculomegaly and hydrocephalus. Fluids Barriers CNS. 2024;21(1):57. doi: 10.1186/s12987-024-00532-w https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39020364/.
  • Long B, Koyfman A, Gottlieb M. Accuracy of physical examination and imaging findings for the diagnosis of elevated intracranial pressure. Acad Emerg Med. 2020;doi: 10.1111/acem.13928 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31994795/.
  • Mansour A, Rowell S, Powla PP, et al. Comparative effectiveness of intracranial pressure monitoring on 6-month outcomes of critically ill patients with traumatic brain injury. JAMA Netw Open. 2023;6(3):e231077-e231077. doi: 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2023.1077 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36961466/.
  • Munawar K, Khan MT, Hussain SW, et al. Optic nerve sheath diameter correlation with elevated intracranial pressure determined via ultrasound. Cureus. 2019;11(2):e4145. doi: 10.7759/cureus.4145 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31058028/.
  • Petrosino M, Gouvêa Bogossian E, Rebora P, et al. Neurological pupil index and intracranial hypertension in patients with acute brain injury: A secondary analysis of the ORANGE study. JAMA Neurol. 2025;82(2):176-184. doi: 10.1001/jamaneurol.2024.4189 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39652324/.
  • Saju C, Barnes A, Kuramatsu JB, et al. Describing anisocoria in neurocritically ill patients. Am J Crit Care. 2023;32(6):402-409. doi: 10.4037/ajcc2023558 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37907374/.