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Module 5: Abdominal Injuries

Segment 11: The Septic Trauma Patient

References labeled PEDS contain a pediatric element or primary focus.

Topic: Sepsis: definition & identification

  • Adams R, Henry KE, Sridharan A, et al. Prospective, multi-site study of patient outcomes after implementation of the TREWS machine learning-based early warning system for sepsis. Nat Med. 2022;28(7):1455-1460. doi: 10.1038/s41591-022-01894-0 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35864252/.
  • Bolanaki M, Winning J, Slagman A, et al. Biomarkers improve diagnostics of sepsis in adult patients with suspected organ dysfunction based on the quick Sepsis-Related Organ Failure Assessment (qSOFA) score in the emergency department. Crit Care Med. 2024;doi: 10.1097/ccm.0000000000006216 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38502804/.
  • Bourika V, Rekoumi EA, Giamarellos-Bourboulis EJ. Biomarkers to guide sepsis management. Ann Intensive Care. 2025;15(1):103. doi: 10.1186/s13613-025-01524-1 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40685448/.
  • Caicedo Ruiz JD, Aldana JL, Kattan E, et al. Left ventricular-arterial coupling in septic shock: A physiological review. J Crit Care. 2026;93:155486. doi: 10.1016/j.jcrc.2026.155486 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41734533/.
  • Castro R, Hernández G, Kattan E, et al. What every intensivist should know about the biphasic kinetics of lactate in septic shock. J Crit Care. 2025;91:155286. doi: 10.1016/j.jcrc.2025.155286 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41101140/.
  • Chen L, Zhang X, Shi P. Recent advances in biomarkers for detection and diagnosis of sepsis and organ dysfunction: a comprehensive review. Eur J Med Res. 2025;30(1):1081. doi: 10.1186/s40001-025-03324-6 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41204362/.
  • Cohen M, Banerjee D. Biomarkers in sepsis: A current review of new technologies. J Intensive Care Med. 2023;0(0):08850666231194535. doi: 10.1177/08850666231194535 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37593782/.
  • Eguia E, Bunn C, Kulshrestha S, et al. Trends, cost, and mortality from sepsis after trauma in the United States: An evaluation of the National Inpatient Sample of hospitalizations, 2012-2016. Crit Care Med. 2020;48(9):1296-1303. doi: 10.1097/CCM.0000000000004451 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32590387/.
  • Ehlenbach WJ, Sonnen JA, Montine TJ, et al. Association between sepsis and microvascular brain injury. Crit Care Med. 2019;47(11):1531-1538. doi: 10.1097/ccm.0000000000003924 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31389836/.
  • Ha H, Hyun DG, Ahn JH, et al. The impact of coagulopathy on prognosis in critically ill patients with sepsis: A nationwide cohort study. J Crit Care. 2026;93:155436. doi: 10.1016/j.jcrc.2026.155436 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41576496/.
  • Hassan J, Khan S, Zahra R, et al. Role of procalcitonin and C-reactive protein as predictors of sepsis and in managing sepsis in postoperative patients: A systematic review. Cureus. 2022;14(11):e31067. doi: 10.7759/cureus.31067 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36475186/.
  • Hernandez G, Bellomo R, Bakker J. The ten pitfalls of lactate clearance in sepsis. Intensive Care Med. 2018;doi: 10.1007/s00134-018-5213-x https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29754310/.
  • Hernandez G, Kattan E, Ospina-Tascón G, et al. The intricate relationship between capillary refill time and systemic hemodynamics in septic shock. Ann Intensive Care. 2025;15(1):135. doi: 10.1186/s13613-025-01563-8 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40999130/.
  • Hernandez G, Ospina-Tascón GA, Kattan E, et al. Personalized hemodynamic resuscitation targeting capillary refill time in early septic shock: The ANDROMEDA-SHOCK-2 randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2025;334(22):1988-1999. doi: 10.1001/jama.2025.20402 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41159835/.
  • Herwanto V, Shetty A, Nalos M, et al. Accuracy of quick Sequential Organ Failure Assessment score to predict sepsis mortality in 121 studies including 1,716,017 individuals: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Crit Care Explor. 2019;1(9):e0043. doi: 10.1097/cce.0000000000000043 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32166285/.
  • Hunsicker O, Schaller SJ, Singer M. Pathophysiology of distributive shock in sepsis: beyond vasoplegia. Intensive Care Med. 2026;52(8):1774-1777. doi: 10.1007/s00134-026-08555-7 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42440111/.
  • Iba T, Levy JH, Raj A, et al. Advance in the management of sepsis-induced coagulopathy and disseminated intravascular coagulation. J Clin Med. 2019;8(5) doi: 10.3390/jcm8050728 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31121897/.
  • Jabbari L, Azizkhani L, Rouzbin F, et al. Is admission neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio an outcome predictor in critically ill multiple trauma patients? A retrospective single-centre cross-sectional study. Trauma. 2025;0(0):14604086241257552. doi: 10.1177/14604086241257552 https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/14604086241257552.
  • Joffre J, Radermacher P, Kallel H, et al. Vascular leakage during circulatory failure: physiopathology, impact and treatments. Ann Intensive Care. 2025;15(1):79. doi: 10.1186/s13613-025-01474-8 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40473887/.
  • Liu Z, Meng Z, Li Y, et al. Prognostic accuracy of the serum lactate level, the SOFA score and the qSOFA score for mortality among adults with Sepsis. Scand J Trauma Resusc Emerg Med. 2019;27(1):51. doi: 10.1186/s13049-019-0609-3 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31039813/.
  • Luu S, Spelman D, Woolley IJ. Post-splenectomy sepsis: preventative strategies, challenges, and solutions. Infect Drug Resist. 2019;12:2839-2851. doi: 10.2147/IDR.S179902 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31571940/.
  • Marchetto L, Daverio M, Comoretto R, et al. Predictive and prognostic performance of the Phoenix Sepsis Criteria and Phoenix Sepsis Score in PICU patients with suspected infection: A multicenter prospective study. Crit Care Med. 2026;doi: 10.1097/ccm.0000000000007034 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41532812/.
  • McCallister R, Nuppnau M, Sjoding MW, et al. In patients with sepsis, initial lactate clearance is confounded highly by comorbidities and poorly predicts subsequent lactate trajectory. Chest. 2023;164(3):667-669. doi: 10.1016/j.chest.2023.04.023 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37087051/.
  • McMullan RR, McAuley DF, O’Kane CM, et al. Vascular leak in sepsis: physiological basis and potential therapeutic advances. Crit Care. 2024;28(1):97. doi: 10.1186/s13054-024-04875-6 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38521954/.
  • Meyer NJ, Prescott HC. Sepsis and Septic Shock. N Engl J Med. 2024;391(22):2133-2146. doi: 10.1056/NEJMra2403213 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39774315/.
  • Moore AR, Zheng H, Ganesan A, et al. A consensus immune dysregulation framework for sepsis and critical illnesses. Nat Med. 2025;doi: 10.1038/s41591-025-03956-5 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41028543/.
  • Peng F, Chang W, Xie JF, et al. Ineffectiveness of procalcitonin-guided antibiotic therapy in severely critically ill patients: A meta-analysis. Int J Infect Dis. 2019;85:158-166. doi: 10.1016/j.ijid.2019.05.034 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31229612/.
  • Pepper DJ, Jaswal D, Sun J, et al. Evidence underpinning the centers for medicare & medicaid services’ severe sepsis and septic shock management bundle (sep-1): A systematic review. Ann Intern Med. 2018;168(8):558-568. doi: 10.7326/M17-2947 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29459977/.
  • Peters MJ, Shipley R. Clinical classification of cold and warm shock: Is there a signal in the noise? Pediatr Crit Care Med. 2020;21(12):1085-1087. doi: 10.1097/pcc.0000000000002536 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33278214/. PEDS
  • Plata-Menchaca EP, Pérez-Nieto OR, Kattan E, et al. Septic shock: Past, present, and perspectives. J Crit Care. 2026;91:155269. doi: 10.1016/j.jcrc.2025.155269 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40972498/.
  • Póvoa P, Coelho L, Dal-Pizzol F, et al. How to use biomarkers of infection or sepsis at the bedside: guide to clinicians. Intensive Care Med. 2023;49(2):142-153. doi: 10.1007/s00134-022-06956-y https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36592205/.
  • Prescott HC, Posa PJ, Dantes R. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s Hospital Sepsis Program Core Elements. JAMA. 2023;330(17):1617-1618. doi: 10.1001/jama.2023.16693 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37616213/.
  • Redfern OC, Smith GB, Prytherch DR, et al. A comparison of the quick Sequential (Sepsis-Related) Organ Failure Assessment (qSOFA) score and the National Early Warning Score (NEWS) in non-ICU patients with and without infection. Crit Care Med. 2018;46(12):1923-1933. doi: 10.1097/ccm.0000000000003359 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30130262/.
  • Rees CA, Xiao M, Wild J, et al. A simplified Sequential Organ Failure Assessment score is associated with 30-day trauma mortality: A novel tool for a low-resource practice setting. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2026;100(3):e22-e26. doi: 10.1097/ta.0000000000004804 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41123488/.
  • Sato R, Sanfilippo F, Lanspa M, et al. Sepsis-induced cardiomyopathy: Mechanism, Prevalence, Assessment, Prognosis, and Management. Chest. 2025;doi: 10.1016/j.chest.2025.08.013 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40912296/.
  • Seckel MA, Lejnieks JD. Sepsis identification tools: A narrative review. Crit Care Nurse. 2025;45(5):63-79. doi: 10.4037/ccn2025240 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41027636/.
  • Torres JSS, Tamayo-Giraldo FJ, Bejarano-Zuleta A, et al. Sepsis and post-sepsis syndrome: a multisystem challenge requiring comprehensive care and management-a review. Front Med (Lausanne). 2025;12:1560737. doi: 10.3389/fmed.2025.1560737 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40265185/.
  • Twichell E, Sattler L, Reynolds D. Septic shock. Curr Opin Crit Care. 2026;doi: 10.1097/mcc.0000000000001409 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42470650/.
  • Valsamaki A, Vazgiourakis V, Mantzarlis K, et al. Immune dysregulation in sepsis: A narrative review for clinicians. Biomedicines. 2025;13(10) doi: 10.3390/biomedicines13102386 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41153671/.
  • Zhao L, Zhang R. Non-linear association between lactate levels and ICU mortality in septic patients: A multi-center study of 13,888 cases. J Intensive Care Med. 2025:8850666251366228. doi: 10.1177/08850666251366228 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40900015/.
  • Zhao L, Zhang R. Non-linear association between lactate levels and ICU mortality in septic patients: A multi-center study of 13,888 cases. J Intensive Care Med. 2026;41(4):329-335. doi: 10.1177/08850666251366228 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40900015/.

Topic: Sepsis: interventions & outcomes

  • Ackermann K, Aryal N, Westbrook J, et al. Cognitive health and quality of life after surviving sepsis: A narrative review. J Intensive Care Med. 2025:8850666251340631. doi: 10.1177/08850666251340631 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40375798/.
  • Ahn C, Yu G, Shin TG, et al. Comparison of early and late norepinephrine administration in patients with septic shock: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Chest. 2024;166(6):1417-1430. doi: 10.1016/j.chest.2024.05.042 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38972348/.
  • Ammar MA, Ammar AA, Wieruszewski PM, et al. Timing of vasoactive agents and corticosteroid initiation in septic shock. Ann Intensive Care. 2022;12(1):47. doi: 10.1186/s13613-022-01021-9 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35644899/.
  • Angarita-Camacho N, Pinillos-Malagón VS, Rico-Barrera AV, et al. Physical function at ICU discharge and long-term outcomes in mechanically ventilated patients: A retrospective cohort study. Intensive Crit Care Nurs. 2026;96:104452. doi: 10.1016/j.iccn.2026.104452 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42167034/.
  • Angriman F, Momenzade N, Adhikari NKJ, et al. Blood pressure targets for adults with vasodilatory shock: An individual patient data meta-analysis. NEJM Evid. 2025;4(1):EVIDoa2400359. doi: 10.1056/EVIDoa2400359 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39556565/.
  • Brown A, Hus A, Bundschu I, et al. Association of unplanned ICU admission and clinical outcomes in trauma patients with severe sepsis. J Surg Res. 2026;319:100-107. doi: 10.1016/j.jss.2026.01.017 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41671596/.
  • Cabral K, Anderson V, Allen I, et al. Entering a no diaper zone: Rethinking prevention of catheter-associated urinary tract infection. Crit Care Nurse. 2025;45(4):21-28. doi: 10.4037/ccn2025843 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40748932/.
  • Camacho-Ruiz C, Silverberg M. Normal lactate, but a sick patient… Lactate is not everything. emdocs.net; 2019. 28 January 2019. doi: Accessed 2022. http://www.emdocs.net/normal-lactate-but-a-sick-patient-lactate-is-not-everything/
  • Carlos Sanchez E, Pinsky MR, Sinha S, et al. Fluids and early vasopressors in the management of septic shock: Do we have the right answers yet? J Crit Care Med (Targu Mures). 2023;9(3):138-147. doi: 10.2478/jccm-2023-0022 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37588181/.
  • Collins CM, Jalilvand A, Kellett W, et al. Antecedent traumatic injuries independently predict higher 90-day mortality for patients admitted to the ICU with surgical sepsis. Am J Surg. 2025;250:116618. doi: 10.1016/j.amjsurg.2025.116618 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41038054/.
  • Dargent A, Dumargne H, Labruyère M, et al. Role of the interstitium during septic shock: a key to the understanding of fluid dynamics? J Intensive Care. 2023;11(1):44. doi: 10.1186/s40560-023-00694-z https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37817235/.
  • De Backer D, Cecconi M, Chew MS, et al. A plea for personalization of the hemodynamic management of septic shock. Crit Care. 2022;26(1):372. doi: 10.1186/s13054-022-04255-y https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36457089/.
  • De Backer D, Hajjar L, Monnet X. Vasoconstriction in septic shock. Intensive Care Med. 2024;doi: 10.1007/s00134-024-07332-8 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38358543/.
  • De Waele JJ, Girardis M, Martin-Loeches I. Source control in the management of sepsis and septic shock. Intensive Care Med. 2022;48(12):1799-1802. doi: 10.1007/s00134-022-06852-5 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36102944/.
  • Delaney A, Borges-Sa M, Chew MS, et al. Current standard of care for septic shock. Intensive Care Med. 2026;52(1):89-103. doi: 10.1007/s00134-025-08211-6 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41359028/.
  • Douglas IS, Alapat PM, Corl KA, et al. Fluid response evaluation in sepsis hypotension and shock: A randomized clinical trial. Chest. 2020;158(4):1431-1445. doi: 10.1016/j.chest.2020.04.025 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32353418/.
  • Endo A, Yamakawa K, Tagami T, et al. Efficacy of targeting high mean arterial pressure for older patients with septic shock (OPTPRESS): a multicentre, pragmatic, open-label, randomised controlled trial. Intensive Care Med. 2025;51(5):883-892. doi: 10.1007/s00134-025-07910-4 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40358717/.
  • Evans L, Rhodes A, Alhazzani W, et al. Surviving Sepsis Campaign: International guidelines for management of sepsis and septic shock 2021. Crit Care Med. 2021;doi: 10.1097/ccm.0000000000005337 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34599691/.
  • Ferhat Y, Serkan Y, Ulaş Ö, et al. Peripheral perfusion vs standard management in sepsis/septic shock: A prospective randomized ED study. Am J Emerg Med. 2026;99:167-175. doi: 10.1016/j.ajem.2025.09.024 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41033063/.
  • Fonda F, Orso D, Comisso I, et al. Fluid balance and mortality in adult ICU patients with sepsis or septic shock: a systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies. BMC Anesthesiol. 2025;26(1):16. doi: 10.1186/s12871-025-03518-9 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41299283/.
  • Ford JS, Morrison JC, Kyaw M, et al. The effect of Severe Sepsis and Septic Shock Management Bundle (SEP-1) compliance and implementation on mortality among patients with sepsis: A systematic review. Ann Intern Med. 2025;doi: 10.7326/annals-24-02426 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39961104/.
  • Gelbenegger G, Shapiro NI, Zeitlinger M, et al. Lactated Ringer’s or normal saline for initial fluid resuscitation in sepsis-induced hypotension. Crit Care Med. 2025;53(5):e1140-e1144. doi: 10.1097/ccm.0000000000006601 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39969246/.
  • Ha H, Hyun DG, Ahn JH, et al. The impact of coagulopathy on prognosis in critically ill patients with sepsis: A nationwide cohort study. J Crit Care. 2026;93:155436. doi: 10.1016/j.jcrc.2026.155436 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41576496/.
  • Hernandez G, Ospina-Tascón GA, Kattan E, et al. Personalized hemodynamic resuscitation targeting capillary refill time in early septic shock: The ANDROMEDA-SHOCK-2 randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2025;334(22):1988-1999. doi: 10.1001/jama.2025.20402 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41159835/.
  • Hidalgo JL, Kumar VK, Akech SO, et al. The sepsis chain of survival: A comprehensive framework for improving sepsis outcomes. Crit Care Med. 2025;doi: 10.1097/ccm.0000000000006796 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40668160/.
  • Hong S, Wang H, Liu J, et al. Association between 1-h bundle and clinical outcomes in patients with sepsis: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Intensive Crit Care Nurs. 2025:104241. doi: 10.1016/j.iccn.2025.104241 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41047309/.
  • Hong S, Wang H, Liu J, et al. Association between 1-h bundle and clinical outcomes in patients with sepsis: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Intensive Crit Care Nurs. 2026;93:104241. doi: 10.1016/j.iccn.2025.104241 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41047309/.
  • Jackson KE, Wang L, Casey JD, et al. Effect of early balanced crystalloids before ICU admission on sepsis outcomes. Chest. 2020;doi: 10.1016/j.chest.2020.08.2068 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32882244/.
  • Jouffroy R, Djossou F, Neviere R, et al. The chain of survival and rehabilitation for sepsis: concepts and proposals for healthcare trajectory optimization. Ann Intensive Care. 2024;14(1):58. doi: 10.1186/s13613-024-01282-6 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38625453/.
  • Kotani Y, Ryan N, Udy AA, et al. Haemodynamic management of septic shock. Burns Trauma. 2025;13:tkae081. doi: 10.1093/burnst/tkae081 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39816212/.
  • Kuttab HI, Lykins JD, Hughes MD, et al. Evaluation and predictors of fluid resuscitation in patients with severe sepsis and septic shock. Crit Care Med. 2019;47(11):1582-1590. doi: 10.1097/ccm.0000000000003960 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31393324/.
  • Leone M, Russell L, Cecconi M, et al. Hemodynamic failure during sepsis: What clinicians and researchers must know. Anaesth Crit Care Pain Med. 2025;44(6):101602. doi: 10.1016/j.accpm.2025.101602 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41015288/.
  • Li Q, Xu J, Zhao J, et al. Ultrasound-guided fluid volume management in patients with septic shock: A randomized controlled trial. J Trauma Nurs. 2025;32(2):90-99. doi: 10.1097/jtn.0000000000000839 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40053551/.
  • Long J, Luo X, Zhen L. Fluid resuscitation management in patients with sepsis and septic shock: a network meta-analysis. Am J Emerg Med. 2025;doi: 10.1016/j.ajem.2025.06.001 https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0735675725003766.
  • Mamede I, Arêa L, Carvalhal G, et al. Early vasopressin plus norepinephrine versus delayed or no vasopressin in septic shock: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Emerg Med. 2025;99:225-231. doi: 10.1016/j.ajem.2025.10.003 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41067173/.
  • Melchers M, de Smet V, Rooijakkers C, et al. Hemodynamic effects of adjunct arginine vasopressin to norepinephrine in septic shock: insights from a prospective multicenter registry study. Ann Intensive Care. 2025;15(1):59. doi: 10.1186/s13613-025-01472-w https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40299108/.
  • Messina A, Matronola GM, Cecconi M. Individualized fluid optimization and de-escalation in critically ill patients with septic shock. Curr Opin Crit Care. 2025;31(5):582-590. doi: 10.1097/mcc.0000000000001301 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40762584/.
  • Monnet X, Lai C, Teboul JL. How I personalize fluid therapy in septic shock? Crit Care. 2023;27(1):123. doi: 10.1186/s13054-023-04363-3 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36964573/.
  • Munroe ES, Co IN, Douglas I, et al. Peripheral vasopressor use in early sepsis-induced hypotension. JAMA Netw Open. 2025;8(8):e2529148. doi: 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2025.29148 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40864467/.
  • Oshima K, Di Gravio C, Yan B, et al. Endothelial glycocalyx degradation in sepsis: Analysis of the Crystalloid Liberal or Vasopressors Early Resuscitation in Sepsis (CLOVERS) trial, a multicenter, phase 3, randomized trial. Ann Am Thorac Soc. 2025;doi: 10.1513/AnnalsATS.202501-012OC https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40315385/.
  • Peake SL, Macdonald SPJ, Howe BD, et al. Vasopressors or fluids in early septic shock. N Engl J Med. 2026;doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa2516225 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42274006/.
  • Prescott HC, Antonelli M, Alhazzani W, et al. Surviving Sepsis Campaign: International guidelines for management of sepsis and septic shock 2026. Crit Care Med. 2026;54(4):725-812. doi: 10.1097/ccm.0000000000007075 https://journals.lww.com/ccmjournal/fulltext/2026/04000/surviving_sepsis_campaign__international.5.aspx.
  • Proffitt T, Menzies V, Grap MJ, et al. Cognitive impairment, physical impairment, and psychological symptoms in intensive care unit survivors. Am J Crit Care. 2023;32(6):410-420. doi: 10.4037/ajcc2023946 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37907379/.
  • Reitz KM, Kennedy J, Li SR, et al. Association between time to source control in sepsis and 90-day mortality. JAMA Surg. 2022;doi: 10.1001/jamasurg.2022.2761 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35830181/.
  • Rhee C, Yu T, Wang R, et al. Association between implementation of the severe sepsis and septic shock early management bundle performance measure and outcomes in patients with suspected sepsis in US hospitals. JAMA Netw Open. 2021;4(12):e2138596-e2138596. doi: 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2021.38596 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34928358/.
  • Sanchez EC, Taha A, Tolba Y, et al. Assessment of tissue perfusion pressure in patients with septic shock: Beyond mean arterial pressure. Crit Care Med. 2025;53(11):e2305-e2317. doi: 10.1097/ccm.0000000000006805 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40668153/.
  • Sathianathan S, Sachar S, Berro J, et al. Vasoactive medications and the microcirculation in septic shock: A scoping review. Crit Care Med. 2026;54(3):594-606. doi: 10.1097/ccm.0000000000007016 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41528192/.
  • Sato R, Hasegawa D, Guo S, et al. Sepsis-induced cardiogenic shock: controversies and evidence gaps in diagnosis and management. J Intensive Care. 2025;13(1):1. doi: 10.1186/s40560-024-00770-y https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39748440/.
  • Sax DR, Warton EM, Mark DG, et al. Emergency department triage associated with timeliness of care for patients with septic shock. Am J Emerg Med. 2025;98:330-333. doi: 10.1016/j.ajem.2025.10.024 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41138309/.
  • Shapiro NI, Douglas IS, Brower RG, et al. Early restrictive or liberal fluid management for sepsis-induced hypotension. N Engl J Med. 2023;388(6):499-510. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa2212663 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36688507/.
  • Sherman M, Lim P, Cheema T, et al. From resuscitation to rehabilitation: The post-intensive care syndrome continuum in sepsis care. J Clin Med. 2025;14(23):8374. doi: 10.3390/jcm14238374 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41375677/.
  • Shi R, Braïk R, Monnet X, et al. Early norepinephrine for patients with septic shock: An updated systematic review and meta-analysis with trial sequential analysis. Crit Care. 2025;29(1):182. doi: 10.1186/s13054-025-05400-z https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40329359/.
  • Sivapalan P, Ellekjaer KL, Jessen MK, et al. Lower vs. higher fluid volumes in adult patients with sepsis: An updated systematic review with meta-analysis and trial sequential analysis. Chest. 2023;164(4):892-912. doi: 10.1016/j.chest.2023.04.036 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37142091/.
  • Smith E, MacTavish P, Shaw M, et al. Patients’ priorities and goals of care during intensive care unit recovery: A multicenter cohort study. Am J Crit Care. 2025;34(5):363-369. doi: 10.4037/ajcc2025564 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40887447/.
  • Spiegelberg J, Song H, Pun B, et al. Early identification of delirium in intensive care unit patients: Improving the quality of care. Crit Care Nurse. 2020;40(2):33-43. doi: 10.4037/ccn2020706 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32236428/.
  • Wang H, He H, Shen F. Early vasopressor initiation increases mortality in patients with septic shock: Less intensive intervention or more critically ill patients? Crit Care Med. 2022;50(4):e402-e403. doi: 10.1097/ccm.0000000000005418 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35311788/.
  • Wang S, Allen D, Perkins A, et al. Validation of a new clinical tool for post-intensive care syndrome. Am J Crit Care. 2019;28(1):10-18. doi: 10.4037/ajcc2019639 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30600222/.
  • Ward MA, Kuttab HI, Badgett RG. The effect of early fluid resuscitation on mortality in sepsis: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Crit Care Med. 2025;53(9):e1790-e1802. doi: 10.1097/ccm.0000000000006769 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40637496/.
  • Yang A, Liu R, Lv K, et al. Efficacy and safety of ulinastatin in post-traumatic sepsis: A randomized controlled trial. Drugs R D. 2025;25(4):333-341. doi: 10.1007/s40268-025-00524-7 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41191281/.
  • Ye E, Ye H, Wang S, et al. Initiation timing of vasopressor in patients with septic shock: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Shock. 2023;60(5):627-636. doi: 10.1097/shk.0000000000002214 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37695641/.
  • Zampieri FG, Bagshaw SM, Semler MW. Fluid therapy for critically ill adults with sepsis: A review. JAMA. 2023;329(22):1967-1980. doi: 10.1001/jama.2023.7560 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37314271/.

Topic: MODS

  • Bernhardt IM, Moore EE, Sauaia A, et al. Timing of trauma deaths due to uncontrolled bleeding have not changed in three decades: a multicenter study of patients in hemorrhagic shock. Am J Surg. 2025;doi: 10.1016/j.amjsurg.2025.116510 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40706451/.
  • Brakenridge S, Kornblith L, Cuschieri J. Multiple organ failure: What you need to know. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2024;97(6):831-838. doi: 10.1097/ta.0000000000004419 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39225733/.
  • Brink A, Alsma J, Verdonschot R, et al. Predicting mortality in patients with suspected sepsis at the emergency department: A retrospective cohort study comparing qSOFA, SIRS, and National Early Warning Score. PLoS One. 2019;14(1):e0211133. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0211133 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30682104/.
  • Cole E, Aylwin C, Christie R, et al. Multiple organ dysfunction in older major trauma critical care patients: A multicenter prospective observational study. Ann Surg Open. 2022;3(2):e174. doi: 10.1097/as9.0000000000000174 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36936724/.
  • Cole E, Gillespie S, Vulliamy P, et al. Multiple organ dysfunction after trauma. Br J Surg. 2020;107(4):402-412. doi: 10.1002/bjs.11361 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31691956/.
  • Cross HH. Skin failure: A historical perspective. Am Nurse J. 2023;18(10):6-11. doi: 10.51256/anj102306 www.myamericannurse.com/skin-failure.
  • Dewar D, Moore FA, Moore EE, et al. Postinjury multiple organ failure. Injury. 2009;40(9):912-8. doi: 10.1016/j.injury.2009.05.024 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19541301/.
  • Hill R, Petersen A. Skin Failure Clinical Indicator Scale: Proposal of a tool for distinguishing skin failure from a pressure injury. Wounds. 2020;32(10):272-278. doi:  https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33370243/.
  • Lee P, Nair P, Eisman JA, et al. Bone failure in critical illness. Crit Care Med. 2016;44(12):2270-2274. doi: 10.1097/ccm.0000000000001874 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27355524/.
  • Ryznar R, Balogh ZJ. When systems break: Rethinking polytrauma from acute to chronic disease through the psychoneuroimmunological (PNI) Axis. Injury. 2025;doi: 10.1016/j.injury.2025.112581 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40651871/.
  • Shepherd JM, Cole E, Brohi K. Contemporary patterns of multiple organ dysfunction in trauma. Shock. 2017;47(4):429-435. doi: 10.1097/shk.0000000000000779 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27798537/.
  • Tang F, Zhao XL, Xu LY, et al. Endothelial dysfunction: Pathophysiology and therapeutic targets for sepsis-induced multiple organ dysfunction syndrome. Biomed Pharmacother. 2024;178:117180. doi: 10.1016/j.biopha.2024.117180 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39068853/.
  • Ting RS, Lewis DP, Yang KX, et al. Incidence of multiple organ failure in adult polytrauma patients: A systematic review and meta-analysis. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2023;94(5):725-734. doi: 10.1097/ta.0000000000003923 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36809374/.