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Module 3: The Body's Response to Injury

Segment 6: Cardiac Output

References labeled PEDS contain a pediatric element or primary focus.

Topic: Cardiac output

  • Annane D, Ouanes-Besbes L, de Backer D, et al. A global perspective on vasoactive agents in shock. Intensive Care Med. 2018;44(6):833-846. doi: 10.1007/s00134-018-5242-5 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29868972/.
  • Arya VK, Al-Moustadi W, Dutta V. Cardiac output monitoring – invasive and noninvasive. Curr Opin Crit Care. 2022;28(3):340-347. doi: 10.1097/mcc.0000000000000937 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35275876/.
  • Caplan M, Pradignac L, Djerada Z, et al. Pulse Pressure Variation During Passive Leg Raising to Assess Preload Responsiveness: Influence of Inspiratory Effort During Pressure Support Ventilation. Crit Care Med. 2026;doi: 10.1097/ccm.0000000000007221 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42267876/.
  • Cardinale M, Cungi PJ, Esnault P, et al. Impact of high-dose norepinephrine during intra-hospital damage control resuscitation of traumatic haemorrhagic shock: A propensity-score analysis. Injury. 2020;51(5):1164-1171. doi: 10.1016/j.injury.2019.11.037 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31791590/.
  • De Backer D, Foulon P. Minimizing catecholamines and optimizing perfusion. Crit Care. 2019;23(Suppl 1):149. doi: 10.1186/s13054-019-2433-6 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31200777/.
  • Eichinger M, Schreiber MA, Cole E, et al. Injuries associated with hypotension after trauma: Is it always haemorrhage? Trauma. 2023;25(4):316-323. doi: 10.1177/14604086221099422 https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/14604086221099422.
  • Falotico JM, Shinozaki K, Saeki K, et al. Advances in the approaches using peripheral perfusion for monitoring hemodynamic status. Front Med (Lausanne). 2020;7:614326. doi: 10.3389/fmed.2020.614326 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33365323/.
  • Fisher AD, April MD, Cunningham C, et al. Prehospital vasopressor use is associated with worse mortality in combat wounded. Prehosp Emerg Care. 2021;25(2):268-273. doi: 10.1080/10903127.2020.1737280 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32119580/.
  • Gamper G, Havel C, Arrich J, et al. Vasopressors for hypotensive shock. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2016;2(2):Cd003709. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD003709.pub4 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26878401/.
  • Gupta B, Garg N, Ramachandran R. Vasopressors: Do they have any role in hemorrhagic shock? J Anaesthesiol Clin Pharmacol. 2017;33(1):3-8. doi: 10.4103/0970-9185.202185 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28413267/.
  • Ivanov I, Özgün M. Traumatic myocardial infarction following thoracic trauma. Dtsch Arztebl Int. 2024;121(3):78. doi: 10.3238/arztebl.m2023.0119 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38471181/.
  • Leeper B, Ahrens T, Toth C, et al. Knowledge of intravascular determination. Am Nurse J. 2024;19(5) doi:  https://www.myamericannurse.com/knowledge-of-intravascular-determination/.
  • Leopold V, Gayat E, Pirracchio R, et al. Epinephrine and short-term survival in cardiogenic shock: an individual data meta-analysis of 2583 patients. Intensive Care Med. 2018;44(6):847-856. doi: 10.1007/s00134-018-5222-9 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29858926/.
  • Magder S. The meaning of blood pressure. Crit Care. 2018;22(1):257. doi: 10.1186/s13054-018-2171-1 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30305136/.
  • Malbrain M, Martin G, Ostermann M. Everything you need to know about deresuscitation. Intensive Care Med. 2022:1-6. doi: 10.1007/s00134-022-06761-7 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35932335/.
  • Mathew R, Di Santo P, Jung RG, et al. Milrinone as compared with dobutamine in the treatment of cardiogenic shock. N Engl J Med. 2021;385(6):516-525. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa2026845 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34347952/.
  • Messmer AS, Zingg C, Müller M, et al. Fluid overload and mortality in adult critical care patients: A systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies. Crit Care Med. 2020;doi: 10.1097/ccm.0000000000004617 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33009098/.
  • Monnet X, Shi R, Teboul JL. Prediction of fluid responsiveness. What’s new? Ann Intensive Care. 2022;12(1):46. doi: 10.1186/s13613-022-01022-8 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35633423/.
  • Monnet X, Teboul JL. Passive leg raising: five rules, not a drop of fluid! Crit Care. 2015;19:18. doi: 10.1186/s13054-014-0708-5 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25658678/.
  • Orpet RE, Barrett WJ, Kaucher KA, et al. Prehospital trauma compendium: Vasopressors in trauma—A position statement and resource document of NAEMSP. Prehosp Emerg Care. 2024:1-7. doi: 10.1080/10903127.2024.2437656 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39693581/.
  • Pinsky MR, Cecconi M, Chew MS, et al. Effective hemodynamic monitoring. Crit Care. 2022;26(1):294. doi: 10.1186/s13054-022-04173-z https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36171594/.
  • Rola P, Haycock K, Spiegel R. What every intensivist should know about the IVC. J Crit Care. 2023:154455. doi: 10.1016/j.jcrc.2023.154455 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37945462/.
  • Rudkin SE, Anderson CL, Grogan TR, et al. Assessing acid-base status in circulatory failure: Relationship between arterial and peripheral venous blood gas measurements in hypovolemic shock. J Intensive Care Med. 2020;35(5):511-518. doi: 10.1177/0885066618762335 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29514541/.
  • Sims CA, Holena D, Kim P, et al. Effect of low-dose supplementation of arginine vasopressin on need for blood product transfusions in patients with trauma and hemorrhagic shock: A randomized clinical trial. JAMA Surg. 2019;154(11):994-1003. doi: 10.1001/jamasurg.2019.2884 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31461138/.
  • Sivakorn C, Schultz MJ, Dondorp AM. How to monitor cardiovascular function in critical illness in resource-limited settings. Curr Opin Crit Care. 2021;27(3):274-281. doi: 10.1097/mcc.0000000000000830 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33899817/.
  • Tehrani BN, Truesdell AG, Psotka MA, et al. A standardized and comprehensive approach to the management of cardiogenic shock. JACC Heart Fail. 2020;8(11):879-891. doi: 10.1016/j.jchf.2020.09.005 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33121700/.
  • Yoshimoto H, Fukui S, Higashio K, et al. Optimal target blood pressure in critically ill adult patients with vasodilatory shock: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Front Physiol. 2022;13:962670. doi: 10.3389/fphys.2022.962670 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36051909/.

Topic: Hemodynamic monitoring

  • Aseni P, Orsenigo S, Storti E, et al. Current concepts of perioperative monitoring in high-risk surgical patients: a review. Patient Saf Surg. 2019;13:32. doi: 10.1186/s13037-019-0213-5 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31660064/.
  • Berndsen M. Noninvasive and minimally invasive cardiac output monitoring: A nursing perspective. Dimens Crit Care Nurs. 2022;41(3):121-123. doi: 10.1097/dcc.0000000000000524 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36749859/.
  • Bootsma IT, Boerma EC, de Lange F, et al. The contemporary pulmonary artery catheter. Part 1: placement and waveform analysis. J Clin Monit Comput. 2022;36(1):5-15. doi: 10.1007/s10877-021-00662-8 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33564995/.
  • Bootsma IT, Boerma EC, Scheeren TWL, et al. The contemporary pulmonary artery catheter. Part 2: measurements, limitations, and clinical applications. J Clin Monit Comput. 2022;36(1):17-31. doi: 10.1007/s10877-021-00673-5 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33646499/.
  • Kendall RM, Todd WC. Invasive and non-invasive monitoring in the ICU. Trauma Surg Acute Care Open. 2025;10(Suppl 1):e001780. doi: 10.1136/tsaco-2025-001780 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40400726/.
  • Kobe J, Mishra N, Arya VK, et al. Cardiac output monitoring: Technology and choice. Ann Card Anaesth. 2019;22(1):6-17. doi: 10.4103/aca.ACA_41_18 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30648673/.
  • Kuster M, Exadaktylos A, Schnüriger B. Non-invasive hemodynamic monitoring in trauma patients. World J Emerg Surg. 2015;10:11. doi: 10.1186/s13017-015-0002-0 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25774210/.
  • Mallat J, Siuba MT, Abou-Arab O, et al. Changes in pulse pressure variation induced by passive leg raising test to predict preload responsiveness in mechanically ventilated patients with low tidal volume in ICU: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Crit Care. 2025;29(1):18. doi: 10.1186/s13054-024-05238-x https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39789598/.
  • Pour-Ghaz I, Manolukas T, Foray N, et al. Accuracy of non-invasive and minimally invasive hemodynamic monitoring: where do we stand? Ann Transl Med. 2019;7(17):421. doi: 10.21037/atm.2019.07.06 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31660320/.
  • Santiago Giraldo Gutiérrez D, José Velásquez Gutiérrez J, Octavio Ruiz-Villa J. Cardiac output estimation based on arterial and venous blood gas analysis: proposal of a monitoring method. Anaesthesiol Intensive Ther. 2021;53(2):179-183. doi: 10.5114/ait.2021.105730 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34006052/.
  • Saugel B, Kouz K, Scheeren TWL, et al. Cardiac output estimation using pulse wave analysis-physiology, algorithms, and technologies: a narrative review. Br J Anaesth. 2021;126(1):67-76. doi: 10.1016/j.bja.2020.09.049 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33246581/.
  • Scheeren TWL, Ramsay MAE. New developments in hemodynamic monitoring. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth. 2019;33 Suppl 1:S67-s72. doi: 10.1053/j.jvca.2019.03.043 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31279355/.
  • Teboul JL, Saugel B, Cecconi M, et al. Less invasive hemodynamic monitoring in critically ill patients. Intensive Care Med. 2016;42(9):1350-9. doi: 10.1007/s00134-016-4375-7 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27155605/.
  • Teran F, Diederich T, Owyang CG, et al. Resuscitative transesophageal echocardiography in critical care. J Intensive Care Med. 2025;40(11):1133-1142. doi: 10.1177/08850666241272065 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40096050/.
  • Wang J, Li J, Wang H. Method for evaluating volume responsiveness during the passive leg raising test. J Translational Crit Care Med. 2024;6(4):e24-00019. doi: 10.1097/jtccm-d-24-00019 https://journals.lww.com/jtccm/fulltext/2024/12000/method_for_evaluating_volume_responsiveness_during.1.aspx.
  • Zamith N, Walker C, Scully T, et al. Should I target the blood pressure from the arterial line or the cuff? A practical approach for dealing with widely discordant measurements. J Clin Med. 2025;14(24) doi: 10.3390/jcm14248616 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41464519/.