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Module 7: Head Injuries

Segment 10: Secondary Brain Injury

References labeled PEDS contain a pediatric element or primary focus.

Topic: IICP/MAP/advanced monitoring

  • Abdollahifard S, Moshfeghinia R, Najibi A, et al. Timing of intracranial pressure monitoring in traumatic brain injury: A systematic review and meta-analysis. World Neurosurg. 2025;199:124136. doi: 10.1016/j.wneu.2025.124136 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40449835/.
  • Barrit S, Al Barajraji M, El Hadwe S, et al. Intracranial multimodal monitoring in neurocritical care (Neurocore-iMMM): an open, decentralized consensus. Crit Care. 2024;28(1):427. doi: 10.1186/s13054-024-05211-8 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39707556/.
  • Bianchini L MP, Roepke RML, Besen BAMP. Management of intracranial hypertension with and without invasive intracranial pressure monitoring. World J Crit Care Med. 105645. Baishideng Publishing Group Inc.; 2025;14(3). doi:10.5492/wjccm.v14.i3.105645 Accessed 8/18/2025. https://www.wjgnet.com/2220-3141/full/v14/i3/105645.htm
  • Bögli SY, Beqiri E, Olakorede I, et al. Unlocking the potential of high-resolution multimodality neuromonitoring for traumatic brain injury management: lessons and insights from cases, events, and patterns. Crit Care. 2025;29(1):139. doi: 10.1186/s13054-025-05360-4 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40165332/.
  • Brasil S, Chesnut R, Robba C. Noninvasive neuromonitoring in acute brain injured patients. Intensive Care Med. 2024;doi: 10.1007/s00134-024-07406-7 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38630285/.
  • Brasil S, Kasprowicz M, Zaccarelli M, et al. New concepts in intracranial compliance: pathophysiology, monitoring and clinical implications. Curr Opin Crit Care. 2026;32(2):93-99. doi: 10.1097/mcc.0000000000001340 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41384504/.
  • Chesnut R, Aguilera S, Buki A, et al. A management algorithm for adult patients with both brain oxygen and intracranial pressure monitoring: the Seattle International Severe Traumatic Brain Injury Consensus Conference (SIBICC). Intensive Care Med. 2020;46(5):919-929. doi: 10.1007/s00134-019-05900-x https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31965267/.
  • Chesnut RM, Temkin N, Barber J, et al. Concordance between bedside and electronic detection of intracranial pressure crises: Insights from the Brain Tissue Oxygen Monitoring and Management in Severe Traumatic Brain Injury II trial. Crit Care Med. 2026;doi: 10.1097/ccm.0000000000007223 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42302399/.
  • Cook AM, Morgan Jones G, Hawryluk GWJ, et al. Guidelines for the acute treatment of cerebral edema in neurocritical care patients. Neurocrit Care. 2020;32(3):647-666. doi: 10.1007/s12028-020-00959-7 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32227294/.
  • Godoy DA, Brasil S, Iaccarino C, et al. The intracranial compartmental syndrome: a proposed model for acute brain injury monitoring and management. Crit Care. 2023;27(1):137. doi: 10.1186/s13054-023-04427-4 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37038236/.
  • Godoy DA, Rabinstein AA. How to manage traumatic brain injury without invasive monitoring? Curr Opin Crit Care. 2022;28(2):111-122. doi: 10.1097/mcc.0000000000000914 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35034077/.
  • Gupta G. Intracranial pressure monitoring. MedScape; 2018. Apr 01, 2018. doi: https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1829950-overview
  • Hawryluk GWJ, Aguilera S, Buki A, et al. A management algorithm for patients with intracranial pressure monitoring: the Seattle International Severe Traumatic Brain Injury Consensus Conference (SIBICC). Intensive Care Med. 2019;45(12):1783-1794. doi: 10.1007/s00134-019-05805-9 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31659383/.
  • Iavarone IG, Rocco PRM, Grieco DL, et al. Pathophysiology and clinical applications of PEEP in acute brain injury. Intensive Care Med. 2025;doi: 10.1007/s00134-025-08111-9 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40982016/.
  • Jha RM, Kochanek PM, Simard JM. Pathophysiology and treatment of cerebral edema in traumatic brain injury. Neuropharmacology. 2019;145(Pt B):230-246. doi: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2018.08.004 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30086289/.
  • Kirkman MA, Smith M. Multimodality neuromonitoring. Anesthesiol Clin. 2016;34(3):511-23. doi: 10.1016/j.anclin.2016.04.005 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27521195/.
  • Kunapaisal T, Lele AV, Gomez C, et al. Effect of increasing blood pressure on brain tissue oxygenation in adults after severe traumatic brain injury. Crit Care Med. 2024;doi: 10.1097/ccm.0000000000006211 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38299970/.
  • Lazaridis C, Robertson CS. The role of multimodal invasive monitoring in acute traumatic brain injury. Neurosurg Clin N Am. 2016;27(4):509-17. doi: 10.1016/j.nec.2016.05.010 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27637400/.
  • Liotta EM. Management of cerebral edema, brain compression, and intracranial pressure. Continuum (Minneap Minn). 2021;27(5):1172-1200. doi: 10.1212/con.0000000000000988 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34618757/.
  • Liu S LX, Jiang S, Liu D, Wang J,. A review of advances in multimodal treatment strategies for chronic disorders of consciousness following severe traumatic brain injury. Int J Gen Med. 2025;18:771-786. doi: 10.2147/IJGM.S502086 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39967766/.
  • Marcos-Morales A, Meyfroidt G. Personalizing brain perfusion in traumatic brain injury. Crit Care Sci. 2026;38:e20260073. doi: 10.62675/2965-2774.20260073 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41919849/.
  • Martínez-Palacios K, Vásquez-García S, Fariyike OA, et al. Using optic nerve sheath diameter for intracranial pressure (ICP) monitoring in traumatic brain injury: A scoping review. Neurocrit Care. 2024;40(3):1193-1212. doi: 10.1007/s12028-023-01884-1 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38114797/.
  • Mazzeo AT, Gupta D. Monitoring the injured brain. J Neurosurg Sci. 2018;62(5):549-562. doi: 10.23736/s0390-5616.18.04465-x https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29671295/.
  • McGarvey C, Acharya A, Ren G, et al. The effect of intracranial pressure monitoring on severe traumatic brain injury patients who undergo subdural hematoma evacuation. Neurosurg Rev. 2026;49(1) doi: 10.1007/s10143-026-04341-7 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42176125/.
  • Monten K, Hon K, Scoville E, et al. Early autonomic dysfunction following severe TBI and impact on cerebral hemodynamics: A narrative review. J Clin Med. 2026;15(2) doi: 10.3390/jcm15020847 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41598783/.
  • Nattino G, Gamberini L, Brissy O, et al. Comparative effectiveness of intracranial pressure monitoring on 6-month outcomes of critically ill patients with traumatic brain injury. JAMA Netw Open. 2023;6(9):e2334214-e2334214. doi: 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2023.34214 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37755832/.
  • Nurses AAoN. Evidence-based clinical review: Intracranial monitoring. 2023:41. https://aann.org/uploads/Publications/CPGs/AANN23_ICP_EBCR_FINAL.pdf.
  • Payen JF, Launey Y, Chabanne R, et al. Intracranial pressure monitoring with and without brain tissue oxygen pressure monitoring for severe traumatic brain injury in France (OXY-TC): an open-label, randomised controlled superiority trial. Lancet Neurol. 2023;22(11):1005-1014. doi: 10.1016/s1474-4422(23)00290-9 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37863590/.
  • Payen JF, Richard M, Francony G, et al. Comparison of strategies for monitoring and treating patients at the early phase of severe traumatic brain injury: the multicentre randomised controlled OXY-TC trial study protocol. BMJ Open. 2020;10(8):e040550. doi: 10.1136/bmjopen-2020-040550 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32820002/.
  • Picetti E, Biasucci DG, Gouvea Bogossian E, et al. Non-invasive intracranial pressure estimation in the intensive care unit: narrative review of methods and clinical applications. Intensive Care Med. 2026;52(4):747-764. doi: 10.1007/s00134-026-08420-7 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42043555/.
  • Rajagopalan S, Sarwal A. Neuromonitoring in critically ill patients. Crit Care Med. 2023:e005809. doi: 10.1097/ccm.0000000000005809 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36794946/.
  • Réen L, Wikström H, Visse E, et al. Altered neurocritical care management of patients with severe traumatic brain injury following changed positions of the zero-reference points for intracranial and arterial pressure measurement. Neurocrit Care. 2025;doi: 10.1007/s12028-025-02366-2 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40921991/.
  • Santana LS, Diniz JBC, Solla DJF, et al. Brain tissue oxygen combined with intracranial pressure monitoring versus isolated intracranial pressure monitoring in patients with traumatic brain injury: an updated systematic review and meta-analysis. Neurol Sci. 2024;45(7):3051-3059. doi: 10.1007/s10072-024-07392-0 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38353849/.
  • Sharie SA, Almari R, Azzam S, et al. Brain protective ventilation strategies in severe acute brain injury. Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep. 2025;25(1):68. doi: 10.1007/s11910-025-01462-2 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41082009/.
  • Shi D, Shen C, Wu J, et al. Evaluation of prognosis of coma patients with acute brain injury by electroencephalogram bispectral index monitoring. J Trauma Nurs. 2021;28(5):298-303. doi: 10.1097/jtn.0000000000000607 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34491945/.
  • Smith M. Multimodality neuromonitoring in adult traumatic brain injury: A narrative review. Anesthesiology. 2018;128(2):401-415. doi: 10.1097/aln.0000000000001885 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28938277/.
  • Spaite DW, Hu C, Bobrow BJ, et al. Mortality and prehospital blood pressure in patients with major traumatic brain injury: Implications for the hypotension threshold. JAMA Surg. 2017;152(4):360-368. doi: 10.1001/jamasurg.2016.4686 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27926759/.
  • Svedung Wettervik T, Beqiri E, Hånell A, et al. Revisiting the oxygen reactivity index in traumatic brain injury: the complementary value of combined focal and global autoregulation monitoring. Crit Care. 2025;29(1):20. doi: 10.1186/s13054-025-05261-6 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39800698/.
  • Svedung Wettervik T, Beqiri E, Hånell A, et al. Intracranial compliance monitoring using pulse shape index in traumatic brain injury: relation to cerebral physiology and clinical outcome. Crit Care. 2026;30(1) doi: 10.1186/s13054-026-06071-0 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42106863/.
  • Taccone FS, Arabi Y, Baggiani M, et al. Intracranial pressure physiology, monitoring and individualized management in the acute brain injured patient. Intensive Care Med. 2026;doi: 10.1007/s00134-026-08558-4 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42525086/.
  • Tamagnone FM, Cheong I, Luna E, et al. Ultrasound-guided cerebral resuscitation in patients with severe traumatic brain Injury. J Clin Monit Comput. 2023;37(2):359-363. doi: 10.1007/s10877-022-00954-7 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36454340/.
  • Thomas E, Czosnyka M, Hutchinson P. Calculation of cerebral perfusion pressure in the management of traumatic brain injury: joint position statement by the councils of the Neuroanaesthesia and Critical Care Society of Great Britain and Ireland (NACCS) and the Society of British Neurological Surgeons (SBNS). Br J Anaesth. 2015;115(4):487-8. doi: 10.1093/bja/aev233 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26187435/.
  • Valadka AB, Brady B, Dultz LA, et al. Current management of traumatic intracranial hypertension: What you need to know. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2026;doi: 10.1097/ta.0000000000004921 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41609519/.
  • Van Keer K, Van Keer J, Barbosa Breda J, et al. Non-invasive assessment of cerebral oxygenation: A comparison of retinal and transcranial oximetry. PLoS One. 2018;13(1):e0190612. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0190612 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29304150/.
  • Vásquez-García S, Rubiano AM, Lee K. Cerebral tissue oximetry monitoring for severe brain injury. J Intensive Care Med. 2025:8850666251357487. doi: 10.1177/08850666251357487 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40665875/.

Topic: Secondary brain injuries

  • Cash A, Theus MH. Mechanisms of blood-brain barrier dysfunction in traumatic brain injury. Int J Mol Sci. 2020;21(9) doi: 10.3390/ijms21093344 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32397302/.
  • Kaur P, Sharma S. Recent advances in pathophysiology of traumatic brain injury. Curr Neuropharmacol. 2018;16(8):1224-1238. doi: 10.2174/1570159x15666170613083606 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28606040/.
  • Maiga AW, Lin HS, Wisniewski SR, et al. Adverse prehospital events and outcomes after traumatic brain injury. JAMA Netw Open. 2025;8(1):e2457506. doi: 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2024.57506 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39888614/.
  • Marino A, Kareddy A, Wang XQ, et al. Cerebral autoregulation in severe traumatic brain injury: Source of index, timing, and relationship to spreading depolarization. J Neurotrauma. 2026:8977151261438296. doi: 10.1177/08977151261438296 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41937269/.
  • Picetti E, Galarza L, Arroyo Diez M, et al. Staircase strategy, tier-three therapies, and effects on outcome in traumatic brain injured patients: the Triple-T TBI study. Intensive Care Med. 2025;51(4):681-691. doi: 10.1007/s00134-025-07864-7 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40227321/.
  • Robba C, Zanier ER, Lopez Soto C, et al. Mastering the brain in critical conditions: an update. Intensive Care Med Exp. 2024;12(1):1. doi: 10.1186/s40635-023-00587-3 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38182945/.
  • Shah RK, Lin JJ, Makkapati T, et al. The effect of traumatic brain injury on the gastrointestinal system: A comprehensive review. Brain Sci. 2026;16(3) doi: 10.3390/brainsci16030254 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41892598/.
  • Singer M, Young PJ, Laffey JG, et al. Dangers of hyperoxia. Crit Care. 2021;25(1):440. doi: 10.1186/s13054-021-03815-y https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34924022/.
  • Spaite DW, Hu C, Bobrow BJ, et al. Mortality and prehospital blood pressure in patients with major traumatic brain injury: Implications for the hypotension threshold. JAMA Surg. 2017;152(4):360-368. doi: 10.1001/jamasurg.2016.4686 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27926759/.
  • Wong CK, Khurana N, Aliakbar RT, et al. Neuromodulation to Promote Recovery Following Traumatic Brain Injury: A Narrative Review of Current Pharmacologic and Non-Pharmacologic Approaches. Brain Sci. 2026;16(8):813. doi:  https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3425/16/8/813.

Topic: TBI general interventions

  • Ader J, Twomey K, Fink ME, et al. The historical and clinical foundations of the modern neuroscience intensive care unit. World Neurosurg. 2024;193:338-342. doi: 10.1016/j.wneu.2024.09.119 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39732024/.
  • Angriman F, Amaral A, Fan E, et al. Timing of extubation in adult patients with acute brain injury. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2024;doi: 10.1164/rccm.202408-1553OC https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39585965/.
  • Chesnut RM, Temkin N, Videtta W, et al. Consensus-based management protocol (CREVICE protocol) for the treatment of severe traumatic brain injury based on imaging and clinical examination for use when intracranial pressure monitoring is not employed. J Neurotrauma. 2020;37(11):1291-1299. doi: 10.1089/neu.2017.5599 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32013721/.
  • Dong J-f, Zhang F, Zhang J. Trauma-induced coagulopathy. In: Moore HB, Neal MD, Moore EE, eds. Trauma-Induced Coagulopathy. Springer International Publishing. 2020. 583-606.
  • Egodage T, Patel PP. Updates in traumatic brain injury management: brain oxygenation, middle meningeal artery embolization and new protocols. Trauma Surg Acute Care Open. 2024;9(Suppl 2):e001382. doi: 10.1136/tsaco-2024-001382 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38646037/.
  • El-Swaify ST, Refaat MA, Ali SH, et al. Controversies and evidence gaps in the early management of severe traumatic brain injury: back to the ABCs. Trauma Surg Acute Care Open. 2022;7(1):e000859. doi: 10.1136/tsaco-2021-000859 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35071780/.
  • Evanson NK, Veldhi P, Scherpenberg C, et al. Extracranial effects of traumatic brain injury: A narrative review. Clin Pract. 2025;15(3) doi: 10.3390/clinpract15030047 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40136583/.
  • Geeraerts T, Velly L, Abdennour L, et al. Management of severe traumatic brain injury (first 24hours). Anaesth Crit Care Pain Med. 2018;37(2):171-186. doi: 10.1016/j.accpm.2017.12.001 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29288841/.
  • Ghneim M, Stein DM. Management of traumatic brain injury in older adults: What you need to know. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2023;95(5):780-789. doi: 10.1097/ta.0000000000004118 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37590010/.
  • Harvey D, Butler J, Groves J, et al. Management of perceived devastating brain injury after hospital admission: a consensus statement from stakeholder professional organizations. Br J Anaesth. 2018;120(1):138-145. doi: 10.1016/j.bja.2017.10.002 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29397121/.
  • Hawryluk GWJ, Rubiano AM, Totten AM, et al. Guidelines for the management of severe traumatic brain injury: 2020 update of the decompressive craniectomy recommendations. Neurosurgery. 2020;87(3):427-434. doi: 10.1093/neuros/nyaa278 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32761068/.
  • Hossain I, Rostami E, Marklund N. The management of severe traumatic brain injury in the initial postinjury hours – current evidence and controversies. Curr Opin Crit Care. 2023;29(6):650-658. doi: 10.1097/mcc.0000000000001094 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37851061/.
  • Johnson PL, Dualeh SHA, Ward AL, et al. Association of timing and agent for venous thromboembolism prophylaxis in patients with severe traumatic brain injury on venous thromboembolism events, mortality, neurosurgical intervention, and discharge disposition. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2024;97(4):590-603. doi: 10.1097/ta.0000000000004383 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38745357/.
  • July J, Pranata R. Tranexamic acid is associated with reduced mortality, hemorrhagic expansion, and vascular occlusive events in traumatic brain injury - meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. BMC Neurol. 2020;20(1):119. doi: 10.1186/s12883-020-01694-4 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32252661/.
  • Khan AD, Lee J, Galicia K, et al. A multicenter validation of the modified brain injury guidelines: Are they safe and effective? J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2022;doi: 10.1097/ta.0000000000003633 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35358157/.
  • Larcipretti ALL, Udoma-Udofa OC, Gomes FC, et al. Transfusion practices in traumatic brain injury: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Crit Care Med. 2025;doi: 10.1097/ccm.0000000000006585 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39878558/.
  • Lu Y, Jin J, Zhang H, et al. Traumatic brain injury: bridging pathophysiological insights and precision treatment strategies. Neural Regen Res. 2025;doi: 10.4103/nrr.Nrr-d-24-01398 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40145994/.
  • Lund A, Madsen AF, Capion T, et al. Brain hypoxia and metabolic crisis are common in patients with acute brain injury despite a normal intracranial pressure. Sci Rep. 2024;14(1):23828. doi: 10.1038/s41598-024-75129-2 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39394442/.
  • McNett M, ed. Evidence-based review: Nursing care of adults with severe traumatic brain injury. American Association of Neuroscience Nurses; 2021. Molly McNett PRCFF, ed. Clinical Practice Guidelines Series. https://aann.org/uploads/AANN20_CPG_TU_Update_FINAL.pdf.
  • Neal MD, Okonkwo DO, Guyette FX, et al. Early cold-stored platelet transfusion following traumatic brain injury: A randomized clinical trial. Ann Surg. 2025;doi: 10.1097/sla.0000000000006640 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39840438/.
  • Newcombe VFJ, Chow A. The features of the typical traumatic brain injury patient in the ICU are changing: what will this mean for the intensivist? Curr Opin Crit Care. 2021;27(2):80-86. doi: 10.1097/mcc.0000000000000814 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33534257/.
  • Newman ZC, Ogbeifun VO, Barbosa CE, et al. Intravenous versus intraosseous use of tranexamic acid in patients with traumatic brain injury. J Surg Res. 2024;302:798-804. doi: 10.1016/j.jss.2024.08.003 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39226704/.
  • Niziolek G, Sandsmark DK, Pascual JL. Neurotrauma. Curr Opin Crit Care. 2022;28(6):715-724. doi: 10.1097/mcc.0000000000001005 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36302199/.
  • Oft HC, Simon DW, Sun D. New insights into metabolism dysregulation after TBI. J Neuroinflammation. 2024;21(1):184. doi: 10.1186/s12974-024-03177-6 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39075578/.
  • Schizodimos T, Soulountsi V, Iasonidou C, et al. An overview of management of intracranial hypertension in the intensive care unit. J Anesth. 2020;34(5):741-757. doi: 10.1007/s00540-020-02795-7 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32440802/.
  • Spaite DW, Bobrow BJ, Keim SM, et al. Association of statewide implementation of the Prehospital Traumatic Brain Injury Treatment Guidelines with patient survival following traumatic brain injury: The Excellence in Prehospital Injury Care (EPIC) study. JAMA Surg. 2019;154(7):e191152. doi: 10.1001/jamasurg.2019.1152 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31066879/.
  • Wada T, Shiraishi A, Gando S, et al. Pathophysiology of coagulopathy induced by traumatic brain injury is identical to that of disseminated intravascular coagulation with hyperfibrinolysis. Front Med (Lausanne). 2021;8:767637. doi: 10.3389/fmed.2021.767637 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34869481/.
  • Yuan X, Zhang S, Wan J, et al. Efficacy of restrictive versus liberal transfusion strategies in patients with traumatic brain injury: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Ann Intensive Care. 2024;14(1):177. doi: 10.1186/s13613-024-01411-1 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39607477/.
  • Zhang M, Liu T. Efficacy and safety of tranexamic acid in acute traumatic brain injury: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Am J Emerg Med. 2024;80:35-43. doi: 10.1016/j.ajem.2024.03.005 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38502985/.

Topic: TBI medical & nursing interventions

  • American Association of Neuroscience Nurses. Nursing management of adults with severe traumatic brain injury. 2020:20. Clinical Practice Guideline Series. https://aann.org/uploads/Publications/CPGs/AANN20_sTBI_EBR.pdf.
  • Andrews PJ, Sinclair HL, Rodríguez A, et al. Therapeutic hypothermia to reduce intracranial pressure after traumatic brain injury: the Eurotherm3235 RCT. Health Technol Assess. 2018;22(45):1-134. doi: 10.3310/hta22450 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30168413/.
  • Atkin-Jones T, Solorzano-Aldana MC, Rezk A, et al. Impact of oxygen and carbon dioxide levels on mortality in moderate to severe traumatic brain injury: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Crit Care. 2025;29(1):357. doi: 10.1186/s13054-025-05604-3 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40814097/.
  • Battaglini D, Robba C, Patroniti NA. Mechanical ventilation in acute brain injured patients: balancing brain, lung, and diaphragm protection. Curr Opin Crit Care. 2026;32(1):24-33. doi: 10.1097/mcc.0000000000001350 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41481827/.
  • Brinker V, Exadaktylos A, Hautz W, et al. First breath matters: Out-of-hospital mechanical ventilation in patients with traumatic brain injury. J Clin Med. 2025;14(23):8443. doi: 10.3390/jcm14238443 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41375748/.
  • Cardim D, Giardina A, Ciliberti P, et al. Short-term mild hyperventilation on intracranial pressure, cerebral autoregulation, and oxygenation in acute brain injury patients: a prospective observational study. J Clin Monit Comput. 2024;38(4):753-762. doi: 10.1007/s10877-023-01121-2 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38310592/.
  • Chang MH, Sung PS, Lin SH, et al. Comparison of life expectancy and loss of life expectancy in fall-risk populations with hip and vertebral fractures: A 10-year nationwide cohort study. Injury. 2026;57(6):113274. doi: 10.1016/j.injury.2026.113274 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42025401/.
  • Chantanakomes J, Pansiritanachot W, Riyapan S, et al. Association of prehospital optimal blood pressure and peripheral oxygen saturation with hospital outcomes in sports-related and recreation-related traumatic brain injury (SRR-TBI) in Asia. Emerg Med J. 2025;doi: 10.1136/emermed-2024-214031 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41161702/.
  • Chen H, Wu F, Yang P, et al. A meta-analysis of the effects of therapeutic hypothermia in adult patients with traumatic brain injury. Crit Care. 2019;23(1):396. doi: 10.1186/s13054-019-2667-3 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31806001/.
  • Cooper DJ, Nichol AD, Bailey M, et al. Effect of early sustained prophylactic hypothermia on neurologic outcomes among patients with severe traumatic brain injury: The POLAR randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2018;320(21):2211-2220. doi: 10.1001/jama.2018.17075 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30357266/.
  • Crompton EM, Lubomirova I, Cotlarciuc I, et al. Meta-analysis of therapeutic hypothermia for traumatic brain injury in adult and pediatric patients. Crit Care Med. 2017;45(4):575-583. doi: 10.1097/ccm.0000000000002205 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27941370/.
  • de Mesmay M, Geral L, Gregoire C, et al. Effect of paracetamol on cerebral temperature in febrile brain-injured patients: The NEUROTHERM study: A randomized controlled pharmacodynamic trial. Crit Care Med. 2025;doi: 10.1097/ccm.0000000000006951 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41217349/.
  • Drewry A, Mohr NM. Temperature Management in the ICU. Crit Care Med. 2022;doi: 10.1097/ccm.0000000000005556 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35426840/.
  • Dymond C, Xiao M, Dixon J, et al. The effect of nonsurgical critical resuscitative interventions on mortality and neurological outcomes in isolated moderate-to-severe traumatic brain injury in a resource-limited health system. J Neurotrauma. 2026:8977151261427265. doi: 10.1177/08977151261427265 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41963280/.
  • Fenger AW, Olsen MH, Jensen HR, et al. Glycemic Control in Severe Acute Brain Injury: Systematic Review and Meta-analysis with Trial Sequential Analysis. Neurocrit Care. 2026;doi: 10.1007/s12028-026-02592-2 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42477260/.
  • Fornaciari A, Zangari R, Polato M, et al. The impact of hyperoxemia on mortality and neurological outcomes in traumatic brain injury: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Neurosurg Sci. 2025;69(6):481-492. doi: 10.23736/s0390-5616.25.06480-x https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41572791/.
  • Georgopoulos D, Taran S, Bolaki M, et al. Mechanical ventilation in patients with acute brain injuries: A pathophysiology-based approach. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2025;doi: 10.1164/rccm.202409-1813SO https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39970391/.
  • Guglielmi A, Graziano F, Bogossian EG, et al. Haemoglobin values, transfusion practices, and long-term outcomes in critically ill patients with traumatic brain injury: a secondary analysis of CENTER-TBI. Crit Care. 2024;28(1):199. doi: 10.1186/s13054-024-04980-6 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38877571/.
  • Gumbo CT, Barbour MA, Weil ZM. Neurocardiac consequences of traumatic brain injury: integrating neuroimmune, autonomic, and cerebrovascular mechanisms. Front Immunol. 2026;17:1861951. doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2026.1861951 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42317349/.
  • Gunst J, Debaveye Y, Güiza F, et al. Tight blood-glucose control without early parenteral nutrition in the ICU. N Engl J Med. 2023;389(13):1180-1190. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa2304855 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37754283/.
  • Hassager C, Schmidt H, Møller JE, et al. Duration of device-based fever prevention after cardiac arrest. N Engl J Med. 2023;388(10):888-897. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa2212528 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36342119/.
  • Hoyne J, Edlow J. Airway management in patients with acute brain injury or ischemia. J Emerg Med. 2025;74:125-133. doi: 10.1016/j.jemermed.2024.12.015 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40348691/.
  • Jacovides CL, Skeete DA, Werner NL, et al. American Association for the Surgery of Trauma/American College of Surgeons—Committee on Trauma clinical consensus-driven protocol for glucose management in the post-resuscitation intensive care unit adult trauma patient. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2023;95(6):951-958. doi: 10.1097/ta.0000000000004124 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37561094/.
  • Lavinio A, Busl KM, Coles JP, et al. Temperature control in acute brain injury. Intensive Care Med. 2026;doi: 10.1007/s00134-026-08367-9 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42007984/.
  • Lieberman OJ, Rojas-Valencia L, Amorim E, et al. Gastrointestinal Dysfunction in Critically Ill Patients With Traumatic Brain Injury: Clinical Implications and Putative Mechanisms: a Narrative Review. Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep. 2026;26(1) doi: 10.1007/s11910-026-01500-7 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42400761/.
  • Picetti E, Baggiani M, Taccone FS. Critical care challenges after brain surgery and interventional neuroradiology. Curr Opin Crit Care. 2025;31(6):782-790. doi: 10.1097/mcc.0000000000001324 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41198644/.
  • Picetti E, Galarza L, Arroyo Diez M, et al. Staircase strategy, tier-three therapies, and effects on outcome in traumatic brain injured patients: the Triple-T TBI study. Intensive Care Med. 2025;51(4):681-691. doi: 10.1007/s00134-025-07864-7 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40227321/.
  • Rafaqat W, Luckoski J, Lagazzi E, et al. Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation in severe traumatic brain injury: Is it safe? J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2025;98(1):135-144. doi: 10.1097/ta.0000000000004421 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39238101/.
  • Ramos MB, Britz JPE, Telles JPM, et al. The effects of head elevation on intracranial pressure, cerebral perfusion pressure, and cerebral oxygenation among patients with acute brain injury: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Neurocrit Care. 2024;doi: 10.1007/s12028-024-02020-3 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38886326/.
  • Rapp A, Kobeissi H, Fahim DK. Updated review of the management of and guidelines for traumatic brain injury. J Clin Med. 2025;14(19) doi: 10.3390/jcm14196796 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41095876/.
  • Rezoagli E, Petrosino M, Rebora P, et al. High arterial oxygen levels and supplemental oxygen administration in traumatic brain injury: insights from CENTER-TBI and OzENTER-TBI. Intensive Care Med. 2022;48(12):1709-1725. doi: 10.1007/s00134-022-06884-x https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36264365/.
  • Romero-Garcia N, Robba C, Monleón B, et al. Neurological outcomes and mortality following hyperoxemia in adult patients with acute brain injury: an updated meta-analysis and meta-regression. Crit Care. 2025;29(1):167. doi: 10.1186/s13054-025-05387-7 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40270034/.
  • Romero-García N, Robba C, Ruiz-Pacheco A, et al. Association of mortality and neurological outcomes with hypocapnia in adult patients with acute brain injury: an updated meta-analysis. Crit Care. 2026;30(1) doi: 10.1186/s13054-026-06058-x https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42067940/.
  • Russo L, Kazmi A, Ahmed N. Current management and future challenges in the management of severe traumatic brain injury. Medicina (Kaunas). 2025;61(4) doi: 10.3390/medicina61040738 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40283029/.
  • Sekhon MS, Robba C, Young PJ. Hyperoxaemia in acute brain injured patients: too much of a good thing? Intensive Care Med. 2026;doi: 10.1007/s00134-026-08334-4 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41701320/.
  • Slot RER, Helbok R, van der Jagt M. Update on traumatic brain injury in the ICU. Curr Opin Anaesthesiol. 2025;doi: 10.1097/aco.0000000000001468 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39936885/.
  • Spaite DW, Hu C, Bobrow BJ, et al. Optimal out-of-hospital blood pressure in major traumatic brain injury: A challenge to the current understanding of hypotension. Ann Emerg Med. 2022;80(1):46-59. doi: 10.1016/j.annemergmed.2022.01.045 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35339285/.
  • Spina S, Añón JM, Protti A. Setting mechanical ventilation in patients with acute brain injury: ultra-low dynamic driving pressure for better outcomes? Intensive Care Med. 2026;52(3):531-534. doi: 10.1007/s00134-026-08343-3 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41701326/.
  • Surgeons ACo. ACS Trauma Quality Programs (TQP) best practices guidelines for the management of traumatic brain injury. 2024. https://www.facs.org/quality-programs/trauma/quality/best-practices-guidelines/.
  • Tsai WW, Wu JY, Lu KH, et al. Liberal vs restrictive transfusion strategy for acute brain injury: A meta-analysis with trial sequential analysis of randomized clinical trials. Anaesth Crit Care Pain Med. 2025:101566. doi: 10.1016/j.accpm.2025.101566 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40518044/.
  • Turgeon AF, Fergusson DA, Clayton L, et al. Haemoglobin transfusion threshold in traumatic brain injury optimisation (HEMOTION): a multicentre, randomised, clinical trial protocol. BMJ Open. 2022;12(10):e067117. doi: 10.1136/bmjopen-2022-067117 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36216432/.
  • Viarasilpa T. Managing intracranial pressure crisis. Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep. 2024;25(1):12. doi: 10.1007/s11910-024-01392-5 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39699775/.
  • Vitt JR, Tsetsou S, Galarza L, et al. Determination of cerebral autoregulation at the bedside: A narrative review. Crit Care Med. 2025;doi: 10.1097/ccm.0000000000006790 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40826313/.
  • Wintz D, Schaffer KB, Hites JJ, et al. GIFTS: Geriatric intensive functional therapy sessions for the older trauma patient. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2024;97(2):197-204. doi: 10.1097/ta.0000000000004224 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38051122/.
  • Zarmer L, Khan MS, Islat G, et al. Traumatic brain injury: Advances in diagnostic techniques and treatment modalities. J Clin Med. 2025;14(20) doi: 10.3390/jcm14207145 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41156015/.
  • Zrelak PA, Eigsti J, Fetzick A, et al. Evidence-based review: Nursing care of adults with severe traumatic brain injury. 2020. Clinical Practice Guidelines Series. https://apps.aann.org/store/product-details?productId=512039017.

Topic: TBI meds & fluids

  • Andreasen TH, Madsen FA, Barbateskovic M, et al. Ketamine for critically ill patients with severe acute brain injury: A systematic review with meta-analysis and trial sequential analysis of randomized clinical trials. Neurocrit Care. 2024;doi: 10.1007/s12028-024-02075-2 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39085508/.
  • Arcieri TR, Cobler-Lichter MD, Delamater JM, et al. High-ratio plasma resuscitation decreases mortality in moderate traumatic brain injury. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2026;doi: 10.1097/ta.0000000000005032 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42023940/.
  • Badre D, Elbeialy MAK, Fathy M. Citicoline-amantadine trial in traumatic brain injury: A prospective randomized study. J Neurotrauma. 2025;doi: 10.1177/08977151251375914 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41027417/.
  • Blot PL, Renaux M, Ayasse T, et al. Liberal vs. restrictive transfusion strategies for acute brain injury: a systematic review and frequentist-Bayesian meta-analysis. Intensive Care Med. 2025;51(2):353-363. doi: 10.1007/s00134-025-07807-2 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39961845/.
  • Bossers SM, Loer SA, Bloemers FW, et al. Association between prehospital tranexamic acid administration and outcomes of severe traumatic brain injury. JAMA Neurol. 2020;doi: 10.1001/jamaneurol.2020.4596 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33284310/.
  • Bouras M, Costerousse O, Verret M, et al. Excitatory amino acid inhibitors in adults with acute moderate to severe traumatic brain injury: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ Open. 2026;16(3):e108337. doi: 10.1136/bmjopen-2025-108337 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41856577/.
  • Bouras M, Lauzier F, Fergusson DA, et al. Influence of multiple trauma on the effect of transfusion strategies in patients with traumatic brain injury: a sub-study of the HEMOTION trial. Intensive Care Med. 2026;52(2):211-229. doi: 10.1007/s00134-025-08290-5 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41774107/.
  • Boutrik A, Nunes da Silva Junior U, de Medeiros Fernandes M, et al. Restrictive vs liberal transfusion strategy in critically ill patients with acute brain injury: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Neurocrit Care. 2025;doi: 10.1007/s12028-025-02364-4 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40973882/.
  • Burman S, Chouhan RS, Kumar N, et al. Effect of ketamine analgosedation on neurological outcome in patients with severe traumatic brain injury: A randomized controlled pilot study. Neurocrit Care. 2025;doi: 10.1007/s12028-025-02274-5 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40355795/.
  • Cai L, He W. Effectiveness of hypertonic saline infusion in management of traumatic brain injury: AAn updated systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Brain Inj. 2024;38(12):977-984. doi: 10.1080/02699052.2024.2363340 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38853675/.
  • Chen H, Song Z, Dennis JA. Hypertonic saline versus other intracranial pressure-lowering agents for people with acute traumatic brain injury. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2020;1(1):Cd010904. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD010904.pub3 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31978260/.
  • Costa M, Incristi A, Lindsay J, et al. Effectiveness of antibiotic prophylaxis for ventilator-associated pneumonia in acute brain injury: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Infection. 2025;doi: 10.1007/s15010-025-02709-3 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41379388/.
  • De Vlieger G, Meyfroidt G. Kidney dysfunction after traumatic brain injury: Pathophysiology and general management. Neurocrit Care. 2023;38(2):504-516. doi: 10.1007/s12028-022-01630-z https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36324003/.
  • Dolmans RGF, Russo G, Anstey J, et al. Comparative effectiveness of midazolam-based sedation on the need for intracranial pressure-lowering therapies in traumatic brain injury. Neurotrauma Rep. 2025;6(1):242-250. doi: 10.1089/neur.2024.0077 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40309163/.
  • Esteban-Zubero E, García-Muro C, Alatorre-Jiménez MA. Fluid therapy and traumatic brain injury: A narrative review. Med Clin (Barc). 2023;161(1):27-32. doi: 10.1016/j.medcli.2023.03.003 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37031064/.
  • Fatoni AZ, Soma PMPP, Primadita H, et al. Fluid therapy in traumatic brain injury with the resuscitation, optimization, stabilization, and evacuation (ROSE) concept approach. Crit Care Sci. 2026;38:-. doi: 10.62675/2965-2774.20260365 https://criticalcarescience.org/article/fluid-therapy-in-traumatic-brain-injury-with-the-resuscitation-optimization-stabilization-and-evacuation-rose-concept-approach/.
  • Fu Y, Wang T, Lu R, et al. Red blood cell transfusion in neurocritical patients: an updated systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Anesthesiol. 2026;26(1) doi: 10.1186/s12871-026-03796-x https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41918075/.
  • Goder N, Rubenfeld GD, Amaral A. Neuromuscular blockade for intracranial hypertension: Quantifying real-world effectiveness on intracranial pressure. J Intensive Care Med. 2026:8850666261432119. doi: 10.1177/08850666261432119 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41834677/.
  • Kang H, Ong C, Kenzik K, et al. Association of plasma transfusion timing with mortality among patients with traumatic intracranial hemorrhage across US adult civilian trauma centers. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2026;doi: 10.1097/ta.0000000000004992 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42018712/.
  • Karamian A, Seifi A, Lucke-Wold B. Comparing the effects of mannitol and hypertonic saline in severe traumatic brain injury patients with elevated intracranial pressure: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Neurol Res. 2024:1-10. doi: 10.1080/01616412.2024.2360862 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38825027/.
  • Klimenko T, Briand MM, Dumais C, et al. Pharmacological interventions for agitated behaviors in patients with traumatic brain injury: An updated systematic review. J Neurotrauma. 2025;doi: 10.1177/08977151251381347 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41051905/.
  • Ko S-B. Principle of intravenous fluid therapy in the neurocritically ill patients. J Neurocrit Care. 2024;17(2):41-48. doi: 10.18700/jnc.240044 https://doi.org/10.18700/jnc.240044
  • http://e-jnc.org/journal/view.php?number=424.
  • Laurent C, Deffontis L, Bouchdoug K, et al. Diagnostic criteria and clinical course of inappropriate antidiuresis and cerebral salt wasting syndrome following traumatic brain injury: A retrospective cohort of 351 severe trauma patients. Injury. 2026;57(9) doi: 10.1016/j.injury.2026.113157 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.injury.2026.113157.
  • Lauzier F, Turgeon AF. Rethinking transfusion thresholds in traumatic brain injury: More blood, better outcomes. Crit Care Med. 2025;doi: 10.1097/ccm.0000000000006627 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40009030/.
  • Lawati KA, Sharif S, Maqbali SA, et al. Efficacy and safety of tranexamic acid in acute traumatic brain injury: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized-controlled trials. Intensive Care Med. 2021;47(1):14-27. doi: 10.1007/s00134-020-06279-w https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33079217/.
  • Machado MF, Gomez Galeano VA, Ribeiro Papp SE, et al. Restrictive transfusion in acute brain injury: A meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials. J Crit Care. 2026;91:155311. doi: 10.1016/j.jcrc.2025.155311 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41106235/.
  • MacLaren R, Dionne JC, Granholm A, et al. Society of Critical Care Medicine and American Society of Health-System Pharmacists guideline for the prevention of stress-related gastrointestinal bleeding in critically ill adults. Crit Care Med. 2024;52(8):e421-e430. doi: 10.1097/ccm.0000000000006330 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39007578/.
  • Madakasira SS, Stolarski AE, Saillant NN, et al. Whole blood-based resuscitation and mortality in patients with traumatic intracranial hemorrhage. J Am Coll Surg. 2026;242(6):1683-1694. doi: 10.1097/xcs.0000000000001842 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41677120/.
  • Mangat HS. Hypertonic saline infusion for treating intracranial hypertension after severe traumatic brain injury. Crit Care. 2018;22(1):37. doi: 10.1186/s13054-018-1963-7 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29463291/.
  • McIlroy P, Ramanan M, White KC, et al. Association between hyperchloremia and neurological outcomes in traumatic brain injury: A narrative review. Healthcare (Basel). 2026;14(5) doi: 10.3390/healthcare14050696 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41827648/.
  • Merhavy ZI, Raeburn T, Torres-Ayala GM, et al. Sedation and analgesia strategies in the neuro intensive care unit. World J Crit Care Med. 2025;14(4):111787. doi: 10.5492/wjccm.v14.i4.111787 https://www.wjgnet.com/2220-3141/full/v14/i4/111787.htm.
  • Minoza KG, Brito AM, Loss L, et al. Association between coagulation biomarkers, intracranial hemorrhage types, and tranexamic acid treatments in early traumatic brain injury. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2025;99(3):468-476. doi: 10.1097/ta.0000000000004669 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40490870/.
  • Miyoshi Y, Kondo Y, Suzuki H, et al. Effects of hypertonic saline versus mannitol in patients with traumatic brain injury in prehospital, emergency department, and intensive care unit settings: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Intensive Care. 2020;8:61. doi: 10.1186/s40560-020-00476-x https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32817796/.
  • Nguyen L, Nahmias J, Chen P, et al. Packed red blood cell transfusion: a catalyst for thrombosis in patients with traumatic brain injury? Brain Inj. 2025:1-8. doi: 10.1080/02699052.2025.2481613 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40128940/.
  • Pease M, Mittal A, Merkaj S, et al. Early seizure prophylaxis in mild and moderate traumatic brain injury: A systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Neurol. 2024;81(5):507-514. doi: 10.1001/jamaneurol.2024.0689 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38587858/.
  • Ren X, Liu S, Gao J, et al. Clearing the path: Hypertonic saline’s impact on intracranial pressure in traumatic brain injury. A systematic review and meta-analysis. Adv Clin Exp Med. 2025;doi: 10.17219/acem/197437 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40123354/.
  • Santos Carlin P, Kaplan LJ, Katz E, et al. TXA after severe TBI: Learning and memory benefits are prominent only in males. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2026;100(5):739-746. doi: 10.1097/ta.0000000000004895 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41489527/.
  • Scerrati A, De Rosa S, Mongardi L, et al. Standard of care, controversies, and innovations in the medical treatment of severe traumatic brain injury. J Neurosurg Sci. 2018;62(5):574-583. doi: 10.23736/s0390-5616.18.04462-4 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29671294/.
  • Sciorilli JV, Rossi YI, Dos Reis Schevz R, et al. Is ketamine safe for traumatic brain injury? A systematic review and meta-analysis. J Crit Care. 2025;91:155347. doi: 10.1016/j.jcrc.2025.155347 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41197253/.
  • Sud S, Guyatt G, Angriman F, et al. Liberal versus restrictive red blood cell transfusion thresholds in acute acquired brain injury: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ Open. 2025;15(12):e107697. doi: 10.1136/bmjopen-2025-107697 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41412628/.
  • Taccone FS, English SW, Turgeon AF. Transfusion targets after acute brain injury: the view of the trialists. Intensive Care Med. 2025;doi: 10.1007/s00134-025-08164-w https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41081800/.
  • Taccone FS, Rynkowski Bittencourt C, Møller K, et al. Restrictive vs liberal transfusion strategy in patients with acute brain injury: The TRAIN randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2024;doi: 10.1001/jama.2024.20424 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39382241/.
  • Turgeon AF, Fergusson DA, Clayton L, et al. Liberal or restrictive transfusion strategy in patients with traumatic brain injury. N Engl J Med. 2024;391(8):722-735. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa2404360 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38869931/.
  • van Regenmortel N, van der Jagt M. Maintenance and resuscitation fluids for brain injury: keep them salty and not too sweet but mind the kidney. Intensive Care Med. 2025;doi: 10.1007/s00134-025-08050-5 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40728636/.
  • van Veen E, Nieboer D, Kompanje EJO, et al. Comparative effectiveness of mannitol versus hypertonic saline in patients with traumatic brain injury: A CENTER-TBI study. J Neurotrauma. 2023;40(13-14):1352-1365. doi: 10.1089/neu.2022.0465 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37014076/.
  • Williamson DR, Dryden L, Cheng W, et al. Sedation for moderate‐to‐severe traumatic brain injury in adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2025;(5) doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD012639.pub2 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40326601/.
  • Yokobori S, Yatabe T, Kondo Y, et al. Efficacy and safety of tranexamic acid administration in traumatic brain injury patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Intensive Care. 2020;8:46. doi: 10.1186/s40560-020-00460-5 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32637122/.
  • Ziaka M, Hautz W, Exadaktylos A. A comprehensive review of fluid resuscitation strategies in traumatic brain injury. J Clin Med. 2025;14(17) doi: 10.3390/jcm14176289 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40944047/.

Topic: TBI surgical interventions

  • Cardona-Collazos S, Loaiza-Cardona LM, Salazar-Restrepo A, et al. Surgical management of traumatic brain injury based on intracranial compliance: Toward personalized decision-making. Brain Sci. 2026;16(5) doi: 10.3390/brainsci16050538 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42192850/.
  • Cooper DJ, Rosenfeld JV, Murray L, et al. Patient outcomes at twelve months after early decompressive craniectomy for diffuse traumatic brain injury in the randomized DECRA clinical trial. J Neurotrauma. 2020;37(5):810-816. doi: 10.1089/neu.2019.6869 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32027212/.
  • Guo Z, Ding W, Cao D, et al. Decompressive craniectomy vs. craniotomy only for traumatic brain injury: A propensity-matched study of long-term neuropsychological outcomes. Front Neurol. 2022;13:813140. doi: 10.3389/fneur.2022.813140 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35350401/.
  • Hutchinson PJ, Adams H, Mohan M, et al. Decompressive craniectomy versus craniotomy for acute subdural hematoma. N Engl J Med. 2023;388(24):2219-2229. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa2214172 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37092792/.
  • Hutchinson PJ, Kolias AG, Timofeev IS, et al. Trial of decompressive craniectomy for traumatic intracranial hypertension. N Engl J Med. 2016;375(12):1119-30. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1605215 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27602507/.
  • Jesuyajolu DA, Moti T, Zubair AA, et al. Factors associated with post traumatic hydrocephalus following decompressive craniectomy: A single-center experience. Surg Neurol Int. 2023;14:18. doi: 10.25259/sni_1121_2022 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36751442/.
  • Kelley JK, Jaje KE, Smitterberg CW, et al. Direct to operating room for decompressive craniotomy/craniectomy in patients with traumatic brain injury. J Trauma Nurs. 2023;30(5):282-289. doi: 10.1097/jtn.0000000000000742 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37702731/.
  • Kolias AG, Adams H, Timofeev IS, et al. Evaluation of outcomes among patients with traumatic intracranial hypertension treated with decompressive craniectomy vs. standard medical care at 24 months: A secondary analysis of the RESCUEicp randomized clinical trial. JAMA Neurol. 2022;doi: 10.1001/jamaneurol.2022.1070 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35666526/.
  • Kolias AG, Viaroli E, Rubiano AM, et al. The current status of decompressive craniectomy in traumatic brain injury. Curr Trauma Rep. 2018;4(4):326-332. doi: 10.1007/s40719-018-0147-x https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30473990/.
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