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Module 7: Head Injuries

Segment 2: Brain Injury & Concussion

References labeled PEDS contain a pediatric element or primary focus.

Topic: Brain injuries, general & stats

  • Barbosa GS, Gaspar JO, Nogueira LS, et al. Performance of the modified Rapid Emergency Medicine Score in patients with and without traumatic brain injury. J Neurosci Nurs. 2022;54(3):130-135. doi: 10.1097/jnn.0000000000000645 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35245921/.
  • Chaichan S, Asawalertsaeng T, Veerapongtongchai P, et al. Are full-face helmets the most effective in preventing head and neck injury in motorcycle accidents? A meta-analysis. Prev Med Rep. 2020;19:101118. doi: 10.1016/j.pmedr.2020.101118 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32509508/.
  • Daugherty J, Zhou H, Sarmiento K, et al. Differences in state traumatic brain injury–related deaths, by principal mechanism of injury, intent, and percentage of population living in rural areas—United States, 2016–2018. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2021;2021(70):1447–1452. doi: 10.15585/mmwr.mm7041a3 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34648483/.
  • Deininger MM, Ralser M, Haehn N, et al. Time-weighted lactate and glucose-lactate ratio outperform static values in ICU mortality prediction after traumatic brain injury: a retrospective cohort study. J Intensive Care. 2026;14(1) doi: 10.1186/s40560-026-00864-9 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41654972/.
  • Demetriades AK. The interplay of social determinants of health and long-term disability after traumatic brain injury. Injury. 2026;57(1):112948. doi: 10.1016/j.injury.2025.112948 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41391987/.
  • Garvin R, Mangat HS. Emergency neurological life support: Severe traumatic brain injury. Neurocrit Care. 2017;27(Suppl 1):159-169. doi: 10.1007/s12028-017-0461-0 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28913754/.
  • Gerber KS, Alvarez G, Alamian A, et al. Symptoms and functional outcomes among traumatic brain injury patients 3- to 12-months post-injury. J Trauma Nurs. 2024;31(2):72-81. doi: 10.1097/jtn.0000000000000776 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38484161/.
  • Haksteen WE, Bax RJ, Velseboer DC, et al. Neurological outcome beyond the ICU in patients with severe acute brain injury: A knowledge gap for ICU teams. J Intensive Care Med. 2025:8850666251375411. doi: 10.1177/08850666251375411 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40938897/.
  • Haldar M, Verma A, Jaiswal S, et al. Interrater reliability of four neurological scales for patients presenting to the emergency department. Indian J Crit Care Med. 2020;24(12):1198-1200. doi: 10.5005/jp-journals-10071-23603 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33446972/.
  • Houshmand J, Manolovitz B, Ladd KE, et al. Detecting pain correlates with recovery in acute brain injury patients with disorders of consciousness. Crit Care Explor. 2025;7(10):e1323. doi: 10.1097/cce.0000000000001323 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40991684/.
  • Jennett B. The history of the Glasgow Coma Scale: an interview with professor Bryan Jennett. Interview by Carole Rush. Int J Trauma Nurs. 1997;3(4):114-8. doi: 10.1016/s1075-4210(97)90005-5 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9391355/.
  • Khan AD, Elseth AJ, Brosius JA, et al. Multicenter assessment of the Brain Injury Guidelines and a proposal of guideline modifications. Trauma Surg Acute Care Open. 2020;5(1):e000483. doi: 10.1136/tsaco-2020-000483 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32537518/.
  • Lulla A, Lumba-Brown A, Totten AM, et al. Prehospital guidelines for the management of traumatic brain injury (3rd ed.). Prehosp Emerg Care. 2023;27(5):507-538. doi: 10.1080/10903127.2023.2187905 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37079803/.
  • Makin TR, Krakauer JW. Against cortical reorganisation. Elife. 2023;12:e84716. doi: 10.7554/eLife.84716 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37986628/.
  • Matin N, Beqiri E, Wahlster S, et al. Past, present and future perspectives of traumatic brain injury. J Crit Care. 2026;94:155525. doi: 10.1016/j.jcrc.2026.155525 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41855823/.
  • National Academies of Sciences Engineering and Medicine. Traumatic brain injury: A roadmap for accelerating progress. The National Academies Press; 2022. https://www.nationalacademies.org/read/25394.
  • Newcombe V, Brennan PM, Citerio G. What’s new: The Glasgow Coma Scale at 50-evolution and future directions. Intensive Care Med. 2025;doi: 10.1007/s00134-024-07757-1 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39774862/.
  • Raats JH, Schuijt HJ, Kroes T, et al. Cranial CT scans rarely result in neurosurgical transfers in older adults over 80 years with acute head injuries: A retrospective cohort study. Injury. 2026:113419. doi: 10.1016/j.injury.2026.113419 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42236368/.
  • Reid L, Fingar K, eds. Inpatient stays and emergency department visits involving traumatic brain injury, 2017: Statistical Brief #255. Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality; 2020. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32379407/.
  • Salimi N, Alimohammadi E. Predicting in-hospital mortality in severe traumatic brain injury patients using admission CT perfusion. Crit Care. 2025;29(1):191. doi: 10.1186/s13054-025-05455-y https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40361142/.
  • Teasdale G, Maas A, Lecky F, et al. The Glasgow Coma Scale at 40 years: standing the test of time. The Lancet Neurology. 2014;13(8):844-854. doi: 10.1016/S1474-4422(14)70120-6 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25030516/.
  • Verboom M, van den Berg R, van de Ruit M, et al. Prognostic value of electroencephalography in critically ill adult patients with traumatic brain injury: A systematic review. J Neurotrauma. 2025;doi: 10.1177/08977151251381351 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41048039/.
  • Wagner VE, Karpe AS, Blakely ML, et al. “Do Everything” versus realistic surgical interventions: navigating the road to shared decision-making in trauma surgery. Trauma Surg Acute Care Open. 2026;11(Suppl 1):e002287. doi: 10.1136/tsaco-2026-002287 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42094754/.
  • Wong AM, McGillen P, Ichiuji BA, et al. Predicting functional outcomes in adult traumatic brain injuries using the base deficit, International Normalized Ratio, and Glasgow Coma Scale score. J Surg Res. 2025;314:31-37. doi: 10.1016/j.jss.2025.06.089 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40714457/.
  • Yue JK, Fu AY, Elguindy MM, et al. Neuroworsening from a normal Glasgow Coma Scale Motor Score in the emergency department is an early predictor of neurosurgical intervention, hospital outcomes, and longitudinal disability in traumatic brain injury: A TRACK-TBI Study. Injury. 2026:113089. doi: 10.1016/j.injury.2026.113089 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41672813/.

Topic: Disorders of consciousness

  • American College of Surgeons. Anatomy of the brain. American College of Surgeons; 2024. 12/3/21. doi: https://www.aans.org/Patients/Neurosurgical-Conditions-and-Treatments/Anatomy-of-the-Brain
  • Belleza M. Nervous system anatomy and physiology. NurseLabs; 2024. FEBRUARY 11, 2021. doi: https://nurseslabs.com/nervous-system/
  • Bodien YG, Allanson J, Cardone P, et al. Cognitive motor dissociation in disorders of consciousness. N Engl J Med. 2024;391(7):598-608. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa2400645 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39141852/.
  • Bodien YG, Busl KM, Chang CWJ, et al. Disorders of consciousness diagnosis, interventions, and prognostication for the intensivist: Report of the 2025 ISICEM roundtable. Intensive Care Med. 2026;52(1):42-62. doi: 10.1007/s00134-025-08224-1 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41396553/.
  • De Bonis P, Anile C. Post-traumatic hydrocephalus: The Cinderella of neurotrauma. Expert Rev Neurother. 2020;20(7):643-646. doi: 10.1080/14737175.2020.1779059 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32500770/.
  • Egawa S, Ader J, Claassen J. Recovery of consciousness after acute brain injury: a narrative review. J Intensive Care. 2024;12(1):37. doi: 10.1186/s40560-024-00749-9 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39327599/.
  • Gill MR, Reiley DG, Green SM. Interrater reliability of Glasgow Coma Scale scores in the emergency department. Ann Emerg Med. 2004;43(2):215-23. doi: 10.1016/s0196-0644(03)00814-x https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14747811/.
  • Kowalski RG, Hammond FM, Weintraub AH, et al. Recovery of consciousness and functional outcome in moderate and severe traumatic brain injury. JAMA Neurol. 2021;78(5):548-557. doi: 10.1001/jamaneurol.2021.0084 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33646273/.
  • Liao X, Gao G. Strategies for improving recovery of consciousness after acute brain injury. Curr Opin Crit Care. 2026;32(2):130-136. doi: 10.1097/mcc.0000000000001365 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41581018/.
  • Martin C. What is the reticular activating system? The Health Board. The Health Board; 2024. July 04, 2022. doi: Accessed 2022. https://www.thehealthboard.com/what-is-the-reticular-activating-system.htm
  • Murtaugh B, Olson D, Sharma K, et al. Bedside neurological check frequency does not explain outcomes for patients with coma and disorders of consciousness: A Curing Coma Campaign scoping review. J Neurosci Nurs. 2026;58(3):106-111. doi: 10.1097/jnn.0000000000000877 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41671576/.
  • Robba C, Graziano F, Rebora P, et al. Intracranial pressure monitoring in patients with acute brain injury in the intensive care unit (SYNAPSE-ICU): an international, prospective observational cohort study. Lancet Neurol. 2021;20(7):548-558. doi: 10.1016/s1474-4422(21)00138-1 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32440802/.
  • Serio F, Jenkins PD, Barton C, et al. Drug screening in patients with depressed GCS: An evaluation of current practice and potential bias. Injury. 2026;57(9) doi: 10.1016/j.injury.2026.113460 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.injury.2026.113460.
  • Sherer M, Struchen MA, Yablon SA, et al. Comparison of indices of traumatic brain injury severity: Glasgow Coma Scale, length of coma and post-traumatic amnesia. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2008;79(6):678-85. doi: 10.1136/jnnp.2006.111187 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17928328/.
  • Silva S, Treggiari M, Citerio G, et al. Stepwise clinical and diagnostic strategy for coma of unknown origin. Intensive Care Med. 2026;52(4):729-746. doi: 10.1007/s00134-026-08418-1 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42059919/.
  • Thiessen MEW, Godwin SA, Hatten BW, et al. Clinical policy: Critical issues in the evaluation and management of adult out-of-hospital or emergency department patients presenting with severe agitation: Approved by the ACEP Board of Directors, October 6, 2023. Ann Emerg Med. 2024;83(1):e1-e30. doi: 10.1016/j.annemergmed.2023.09.010 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38105109/.
  • Weiglein T, Zimmermann M, Niesen WD, et al. Acute onset of impaired consciousness. Dtsch Arztebl Int. 2024;121(15):508-518. doi: 10.3238/arztebl.m2024.0079 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38867660/.
  • Wijdicks EFM. A comatose state in search of a name: A history of its terminology and semiology. Neurocrit Care. 2024;doi: 10.1007/s12028-024-01973-9 https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38622486/.